L ocalization of functions in Psychology is a theo Essays

L ocalization of functions in Psychology is a theo Essays L ocalization of functions in Psychology is a theory that refers to the idea that different parts of the brain are responsible for specific behaviors, or that certain functions arelocalizedto certain areas in the brain. A study done by Robert Health (1950) clearly explained the theory of localization in which he tested the localization for pleasure. Another study demonstrated by James Olds (1950) in which he investigated the effect of stimulating the nucleus accumbens for rats. Robert health's aim from his study was to investigate the role of the nucleus accumbens (pleasure center of the brain).To do this, he used depressed patients . Depression is a great way to investigate this study as it is a common mental disorder that causes people to experience depressed mood, loss of interest or pleasure . The participants had electrodes attached to their head so that when they press the button it would electrically stimulates their nucleus accumbens and they would receive pleasure. The results indicated that over three hour session ,one participant known as b19 stimulated himself 1500 times. He experienced extreme euphoria and elation to a point where he had to be disconnected. A very similar study was conducted by James Olds but in his case, his aim was to understand the effect of activating the nucleus accumbens on rats. Olds began his procedure by having rats press on a lever in which it electrically stimulated their nucleus accumbens . The results indicated that rats were willing to walk across electrified grids to reach the pleasure lever and they were even willing to cross the electric rid and they preferred the stimulation over water and drinks. In conclusion, Robert health and James Old demonstrated localization of brain function since they found that pleasure is localizing nucleus accumbence . Although Health experimented his study on humans where as Olds experimented it on rats but they both were able to come up with the same conclusion. Evolutionis the change in the heritable characteristics of biological populations (species) over successive generation.Evolutionary processes give rise to biodiversity at every level of biological organisation , including the levels of species and i ndividual organisms and it mainly relies on the process of natural selection which basically means that organisms with the best characteristics and are adapted to their environment can pass down their genes to their offspring where as the ones that are not well adapted do not pass their genes to their offspring. Over time this results in significant changes in species. A behavior that can be explained by evolution is attraction. There are evolutionary explanation on why we find some people attractive and based on evolutionary benefits which yield for better offspring. This essay is going to discuss the theory of attraction with reference to Wedekind experiment that was conducted in 1995 Weekind's aim for his experiment was to investigate the role of genes (MHC) r elated to immune system in mate selection . MHC genes have a really huge benefits on the immune system as it helps it to identify foreign substances in the body and by having a huge amount of MHC this can lead for a better identification for harmful substances so by having a diverse MHC this can lead for a better immune system for the child therefore humans must have envolve system that can recognize potential mate s with different MHC genes,so t hey can reproduce together offspring with stronger immune systems. For this experiment they used 49 women and 44 men with a wide range of MHC genes. Each man received a clean T shirt and was asked to wear it for 2 nights, as each man was given odour free soup/aftershave and were asked to ensure they remain odour neutral (in order to induce the stronger body odour ) and they were forbidden to eat spicy food. After th e men returned the t shirts, each t shirt was placed in a plastic lined cardboard box with the sniffing hole on top. The women were returned to the study when they were in the middle of the cycle because of their smell was the strongest at that point and they received set of 7 boxes in which 3 of the

The Experts Guide to the AP Calculus AB Exam

The Expert's Guide to the AP Calculus AB Exam SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips Are you taking the AP Calculus AB exam this spring and want to be well prepared on test day?The AP Calculus AB exam in 2020 will be held on Tuesday, May 5, at 8 am. Before you sit down to take the exam, though, it’s critical that you know how the Calculus AB test is formatted, what topics it covers, and how you’ll be scored on it. This guide will go over all of that information while also showing you official sample problems and giving you tips on the best way to prepare for AP Calculus AB. The exam was updated in May 2017, sothis guide will explain what changes have been made and how they might affect your review.The AP Calculus AB exam can sometimes seem overwhelming, but we're here to break it down into clear and manageable information for you. Let’s get started! What’s the Format of the AP Calculus AB Exam? The AP Calculus AB exam is three hours and 15 minutes long and has two sections. Both of these sections are divided into two parts (based on whether or not a calculator is allowed). Multiple-Choice Section Here is an overview of the format of the AP Calculus AB multiple-choice section: 45 questions total One hour 45 minutes total Worth 50% of your total score Part A 30 questions 60 minutes No calculator allowed Part B 15 questions 45 minutes Calculator required Note that the AP Calculus AB exam has had small changes made to its format. Previously, Part A of the multiple-choice section had 28 questions, and Part B had 17 questions. Free-Response Section Here is a rundown of the format of the AP Calculus AB free-response section: Six questions total One hour 30 minutes total Worth 50% of your total score Part A Two questions 30 minutes Calculator required Part B Four questions 60 minutes No calculator allowed This can all look a little complicated, but basically, the AP Calculus AB exam consists of four parts. The first two are multiple choice, and the last two are free response. You are required to use a calculator for the middle two parts (one each for multiple choice and free response), but you may not use a calculator for the first and last parts of the exam. What Topics Does the AP Calculus AB Exam Cover? Content on the Calculus AB exam can be divided into three main topic areas, referred to by the College Board as Big Ideas.Within these three Big Ideas are more specific topics called Enduring Understandings (often abbreviated as â€Å"EU†). Each Enduring Understanding contains both Learning Objectives and Essential Knowledge that the student should have learned by the time of the exam. As I mentioned, there have been some updates to the AP Calculus AB exam. Fortunately, they’re relatively minor changes that mostly have to do with how the course framework is structured, and this will affect instructors of the course more than it will you.The only significant change to the content of the AP Calculus AB exam is that L’Hospital’s Rule will now be included on it- and students will be expected to understand and apply it. I’ve listed each of the Big Ideas and their Learning Objectives below,since these are the most relevant for students looking for what the exam covers. For the sake of length and clarity, I left out the Enduring Understandings and Essential Knowledge. If you’d like to see these, as well as more detailed information on the content covered by the exam, check out the officialAP Calculus AB Course Description. Still, know that the information below will give you a solid look at what you’re expected to know for the exam. Learning Objectives are listed below Big Ideas. These Learning Objectives are skills that students are expected to know how to do for the exam. Big Idea 1: Limits Express limits symbolically using correct notation Interpret limits expressed symbolically Estimate limits of functions Determine limits of functions Analyze functions for intervals of continuity or points of discontinuity Determine the applicability of important calculus theorems using continuity Big Idea 2: Derivatives Identify the derivative of a function as the limit of a difference quotient Estimate derivative Calculate derivatives Determine higher order derivatives Use derivatives to analyze properties of a function Recognize the connection between differentiability and continuity Interpret the meaning of a derivative within a problem Solve problems involving the slope of a tangent line Solve problems involving related rates, optimization, and rectilinear motion Solve problems involving rates of change in applied contexts Verify solutions to differential equations Estimate solutions to differential equations Apply the Mean Value Theorem to describe the behavior of a function over an interval Big Idea 3: Integrals and the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus Recognize antiderivatives of basic functions Interpret the definite integral as the limit of a Riemann sum Express the limit of a Riemann sum in integral notation Approximate a definite integral Calculate a definite integral using areas and properties of definite integrals Analyze functions defined by an integral Calculate antiderivatives Evaluate definite integrals Interpret the meaning of a definite integral within a problem Apply definite integrals to problems involving the average value of a function Apply definite integrals to problems involving motion Apply definite integrals to problems involving area and volume Use the definite integral to solve problems in various contexts Analyze differential equations to obtain general and specific solutions Interpret, create, and solve differential equations from problems in context AP Calculus AB Sample Questions Looking at sample questions is one of the best ways to get a feel for what the AP Calculus AB exam will be like. Here arefour sample questions, one from each part of the AP exam.Each of these questions was taken from the official AP Calculus AB Course Description, which you can look at for more complete answer explanations and additional sample problems. Multiple Choice (No Calculator) This question tests your ability to calculate derivatives. You'll need to use the chain rule to differentiate composite functions. The correct answer to this problem is B. Multiple Choice (Calculator Allowed) This question tests your ability to solve problems with rapid rates of change. You'll have to find the derivative in order to findthe rate of change of the temperature of the water. The correct answer is B. Free Response (Calculator Allowed) This question tests your knowledge of integrals. Parts A, B, and C are each worth 3 points. Free Response (No Calculator) This question tests your knowledge of multiple topics, including derivatives and integrals. You can receive up to 1 point for part A, 2 points for part B, and 3 points each for parts C and D. How Is the AP Calculus AB Exam Scored? As mentioned, the multiple-choice section and the free-response section are each worth 50% of your total exam score. For the multiple-choice section, you earn 1 point for each question you answer correctly. No points are deducted for incorrect answers, so you should answer every question! You can earn up to 45 points for this section. For the free-response section, each of the six questions is worth 9 points, so you can earn up to 54 points. Different parts of each question can beworth a different amount of points (for example, on one question you may be able to earn up to 1 point for part A, 3 points for part B, 3 points for part C, and 2 points for part D). After your points are added up for each of your sections, your AP Calculus AB score is converted to the standard AP scoring scale of 1-5.The exact formula for doing this can change slightly from year to year. However, in 2008, the process for converting raw AP scores to scaled scores involved multiplying the number of multiple-choice questions you answered correctly by 1.2272,and then adding that number to the points you received on the free-response section. This valueis rounded to the nearest whole number and becomes your composite score. Each AP score (from 1-5) corresponds to a range of composite scores. Below,you can see the conversion chart and score distributions for test takers from the 2018 Calculus AB exam: Composite Score Range AP Score % of Students Who Got Score 0-26 1 20.0% 27-38 2 22.4% 39-51 3 21.0% 52-67 4 17.3% 68-108 5 19.4% Source: The College Board 3 Tips for Preparing for the AP Calculus AB Exam Studying for the AP Calculus AB exam can be tough. Use these three tips to make your studying more effective and increase your chances of getting a great score. Tip 1: Memorize Important Formulas There are certain formulas for AP Calculus AB that you should have down pat.There's no formula sheet given on the AP exam, so you’ll have to memorize the formulas you'll need. Many teachers give out formula sheets for students to memorize. There are also various formula cheat sheets you can use to review before the exam. To find these, simply Google â€Å"AP Calculus AB formula sheet† and look at your options. In general, any formula you use regularly in class is a good one to memorize.Major formulas you should have memorized include those for limits, differentiation, and integration, as well as the fundamental theorems. Tip 2: Know How to Use Your Calculator You’re allowed to use your calculator for two of the four exam parts, and most of the questions in these two sections will be difficult, if not impossible, to solve without a graphing calculator. While it might seem obvious that you should know how to work your calculator, knowing exactly how and when to use its different functions can save you a lot of time on the exam and increase your chances of getting the correct answer. According to the College Board, the four calculator capabilities you’ll use the most during the AP Calculus AB exam and should easily be able to do with your calculator are as follows: Plot the graph of a function within an arbitrary viewing window Find the zeros of functions (solve equations numerically) Numerically calculate the derivative of a function Numerically calculate the value of a definite integral When you’re preparing for the exam, be sure that you know how to do each of these (completing practice problems can help!). Tip 3: Get Used to Showing All Your Work For most free-response questions on the AP Calculus AB test, the final answer to a problem is only worth 1-2 points out of a possible 9.This means that the majority of points are earned through intermediate steps of the problem- and if you don’t show how you reached those intermediate steps, you won’t get a high score on this section. Even if you get a correct answer by using your calculator, you have to write the setup (such as the equation being solved or the derivative being evaluated) as well as the answer in order to get credit for your work. You might be used to not writing down certain work that seems particularly obvious on homework and class tests. However, even if your teacher doesn’t mind, AP graders will. Remember that APgraders are more interested in how you reached your final answer than they are in what that final answer is, so get yourself in the habit of showing each step of your work well before exam time. Conclusion: What to Know About the AP Calculus AB Exam The AP Calculus AB exam can be intimidating if you don’t know what to expect.Knowing how the exam will be formatted and what types of questions it will ask can go a long way toward helping you feel more prepared and confident on test day. The exam has two sections, multiple-choice and free-response, which are each divided into two parts, based on whether or not you may use a calculator.Each of these sections is worth 50% of your total AP score. The exam itself covers three main topics: Limits Derivatives Integrals and the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus In order to prepare for the AP Calculus AB exam in the best way, keep these three tips in mind during your review: Memorize important formulas Know how to use your calculator Get used to showing all your work What's Next? Now that you know what the AP Calculus AB exam covers, the next step is to practice!Read our guide to getlinks toevery Calculus AB practice test available online. Wondering how challenging other AP classes are? Learn what the easiest AP classesareand what the hardest AP classes are so that you know exactly what to expect! Not surewhich other math classes you should take? Math is often the trickiest school subject to choose classes for, but our guide will help you figure out exactly which math classes to take for each year of high school. Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points or your ACT score by 4 points? We've written a guide for each test about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now:

Labor Relation Law and The Railway Labor Act Essay

Labor Relation Law and The Railway Labor Act - Essay Example As the report declares The guiding purpose of the Labor relations Law was to protect the worker by providing a workable vehicle by which the unionization process would be facilitated, thereby enabling collective bargaining. It (was) a reality that basic labor law did not favor labor or unions. The NLRA was ostensibly structured to provide a more equitable approach to dispute resolution. According to the paper findings The National Labor Relations Board is a five person appointed federal agency charged with conducting elections for labor union representation and with investigating and remedying unfair labor practices. The NLRB was established in 1935 through passage of the National Labor Relations Act, better known as the Wagner Act, and amended by the Taft-Hartley Act in 1947. The Board’s jurisdiction is limited to private sector employees; it has no authority over labor relations disputes involving government employees, or railroad and airline employees covered by the Railway Labor Act or agriculture employees. In those parts of the private sector it does cover, on the other hand, its jurisdiction standards are low enough to reach almost all employees whose business has any appreciable impact on interstate commerce. The Taft-Hartley Act also created a formal administrative distinction between the Board and the General Counsel of The NLRB. In broad terms, the General Counsel is responsible for investigating and prosecuting unfair labor practice claims, the Board on the other hand, is the adjudicative body that decides the unfair labor practice cases brought to it. ... and remedying unfair labor practices. The NLRB was established in 1935 through passage of the National Labor Relations Act, better known as the Wagner Act, and amended by the Taft-Hartley Act in 1947. The Board's jurisdiction is limited to private sector employees; it has no authority over labor relations disputes involving government employees, or railroad and airline employees covered by the Railway Labor Act or agriculture employees. In those parts of the private sector it does cover, on the other hand, its jurisdiction standards are low enough to reach almost all employees whose business has any appreciable impact on interstate commerce. The Taft-Hartley Act also created a formal administrative distinction between the Board and the General Counsel of The NLRB. In broad terms, the General Counsel is responsible for investigating and prosecuting unfair labor practice claims, the Board on the other hand, is the adjudicative body that decides the unfair labor practice cases brought to it. While the general Counsel has limited independence to argue for a change in the law in presenting cases to the Board, once the Board has decided the issue it is the General Counsels responsibility to 3 defend the Board's decision, even if it is contrary to the position he argued when initially presenting the case to the board. The Board is also responsible for the administration of the Acts provision governing the holding of elections and resolution of jurisdictional disputes. The Board has

Chronic Medical Conditions and Health Surveillance Essay

Chronic Medical Conditions and Health Surveillance - Essay Example In order to control her blood pressure, she was started on an antihypertensive. The patient then sustained a fall which was not accompanied by any episodes of altered consciousness. Falls are a commonly encountered issue amongst the elderly and studies have revealed that they amount to almost 60% of the hospital admissions in the UK National Health Service (NHS) amongst the elderly (Oliver, 2007, p. 173). In order to decipher the cause of the fall, a focused history regarding the events preceding and following the fall should be obtained. In the case of this patient, she reports that the fall occurred when she stood up from a chair and was preceded by an episode of feeling ‘giddy’. Since she denies any aura, alteration of consciousness, post-ictal events, persisting weakness or loss of function in any part of the body after the fall, and this is verified by her husband who was present at the time of the incident, most common neurologic causes of the fall such as stroke o r seizures can be ruled out. Similarly, as she denies any chest pain or palpitations, cardiac causes such as arrhythmias and angina/myocardial infarction also become unlikely as the cause of the fall. ... system covers the commonest causes of falls amongst the elderly, whereby D refers to Drugs and alcohol; A refers to age-related physiological changes, such as impaired balance and postural instability, reduced vision and increased reaction time; M refers to medical causes and E refers to environmental causes (Oliver, 2007). Drugs/medications are amongst the top causes of falls amongst elderly especially due to the multiple co-morbidities that are commonly found amongst elderly patients, the problem of poly-pharmacy leading to drug interactions is quite common in this population of individuals. Therefore, obtaining a careful drug history and ruling out any drug over dosage, interactions and adverse effects leading to a fall is important in elderly patients. A critical analysis of the patient’s medication history reveals that the patient was started on Atenolol, at a starting dose of 400mg BID, which amounts to 800mg of Atenolol per day. Atenolol belongs to a class of anti-hyper tensives termed as beta blockers, and is one of the most commonly prescribed drugs from this class (Carlberg, Samuelsson, & Lindholm, 2004, p. 1684). Atenolol is a cardio-selective beta blocker, i.e. it only acts on beta-1 receptors, which are the predominant type of receptors in the heart. Such beta blockers spare the beta-2 receptors, which are the predominant type of receptors located in the lungs and the vascular smooth muscle and are thus free from side effects such as bronchospasm, which were previously commonly encountered with the use of non-selective beta blockers (Medic8, 2010). Previously, beta blockers such Atenolol were considered to be the first-line agent in the management of hypertensive patients, but more recently, the use of these agents as the drug of choice for hypertension

Wireless networks: Security

Wireless networks: Security WIRELESS networks ,due to ease of installation ,cost benefits and the capability of connectivity , hence communication anywhere ,has made it the most popular way of network setup in this 21st century. With increase in the need of mobile systems, the current electronic market has also been flooding with laptops, pdas, RFID devices, healthcare devices and wireless VOIP (Voice over IP) which are WIFI (Wireless Fidelity) enabled. With the 3G (Third Generation) and 4G (Fourth Generation) cellular wireless standards, mobiles phones are also WIFI enabled with very high speed being provided for data upload and download .Nowadays a malls and public areas not mention even cities are WIFI capable, enabling a person to access the internet or even contact a remote server in his office from anywhere in that city or even from his mobile phone while just strolling down the road. But as every good technology has its own drawbacks so does the wireless networks .Just as in the case of wired networks they are also prone to intruder attacks or more commonly known as Wireless hacking thus compromising the networks , security, integrity and privacy. The basic reason for this is when the wireless network was first introduced, it was considered to have security and privacy built into the system while transmitting data. This misconception had basically arisen because wireless system transmitters and receivers used spread spectrum systems which have signals in the wide transmission band. Since the RF(Radio Frequency ) receivers which at that time could only intercept signal in the narrow transmission band these wireless signals were potentially considered in the safe zone .But it did not take long to invent devices that could intercept these wireless signals as well .Hence the integrity of data send over wireless networks could be easily compromised .With the developme nt of technology so has the methods and ways in which a network can be attacked become more vicious . Fig-1: WLAN (Wireless Local Area Network) Security of wireless networks against such vicious attacks is hence the become the priority for the network industry. This is because not all networks are equally secure .The security depends on where this network is used. For example, if the requirement of the wireless is to provide a wireless hotspot in a shopping mall then then the security of this is never concerned with but if its for a corporate they have their own security authentication and user access control implemented in the network. II. WHY WIRELESS networks are prone to attacks? There are number of reasons why wireless networks are prone to malicious attacks .These are the most challenging aspects to eb considered when a secure wireless network has to be established. a) Wireless network are open networks: The reason for this is that there is no physical media protecting these networks .Any packet transmitted and received can be intercepted if the receiver has the same frequency as the transmitter receiver used by h wireless network .There is also a common misconception that if the authentication and encryption are properly used the network will not be compromised .But what about the messages send back and forth before the authentication and encryption comes into play ? b) Distance and Location: The attacker can attack from any distance and location and is only limited by the power of the transmitter .Special devices have been designed which can attack even short distance networks such the Bluetooth c) Identity of the Attacker: Attacker can always remain unidentified because he uses a series of antennas or other compromised networks before reaching the actual target. This makes wireless network attackers very difficult to track. Some of the reasons why such attacks are so common is because of the easy availability of information from none other than the Internet, easy to use cheap technology and of course the motivation to hack . III. wireless hacking step by step To understand the security protocols for wireless networks currently in use, first it is important to understand the methods through which a weak network is attacked by a hacker .These are also known as wireless intrusion methods . A. Enumeration: Also know as network Enumeration, the first and foremost step to hacking which is finding the wireless network. The wireless network could be any specific target or even a random weak network which can be compromised and used to attack other end systems or networks .This feat is achieved by using a network discovery software which are now a days available online in plenty, to name a few are Kismet and Network stumbler . In order to have more information about the network, the packets that are send and received by the network can sniffed using network analyzers also known as sniffers .A large number of information can be obtained by using this including IP address, SSID numbers even sensitive information such as MAC address , type of information and also the other networks that this compromised end system. Yet another problem faced is the use of network mappers which can be used to find he servers that run these compromised networks hence also attacking these servers which could then affect proper functioning and information transfer between these servers and to other networks connected to it . B. Vulnerability Assesment: This is mainly done by the hacker y using a vulnerability scanner .After the hacker has found the network he want to attack he uses this program in order to detect the weakness of the computer , computer systems networks or even applications. After this the intruder decided on the most possible means of entry into the network. C. Means of Entry: IV. TYPES OF THREATS ATTACKS A. Eaves Dropping and Traffic Analysis: This is the form of attack that makes use of the weak encryption of the network .This always compromises the integrity and security of the network .All attacks such as war driving , war chalking ,packet sniffing traffic analysis all fall under this category B. Message Modification: These attacks are mainly used to modify the data that is send across a network .The modification might be giving wrong information or also adding malicious content to the data packet send form one station to another .This compromises the integrity and privacy of the Data . C. Rogue Devices: Theses could be devices such as APS , application software programs which has been compromised by the intruder and made to function according to him/her. Such devices can compromise the integrity of the network as well as the data send across it .These devices can also launch reply attacks and also make the network associated to malicious content websites or information. D. Session Hijacking: This attack occurs after a valid session has been established between two nodes to through the AP.In the attacker poses as a valid AP to the node trying to establish connection and a valid node to the AP .The attacker can then send malicious or false information to the node that the connection has already been established with .The legitimate node believe that the AP has terminated he connection with it . The hacker can then use this connection to get sensitive information from the network or the node . E. Man In the Middle Attacks: This is similar to that of a session hijacking attack but in this case it is a rogue AP that acts as valid client to the legitimate AP and valid AP to the legitimate client .Once this has been established the rogue AP can access all information from the , intercept communication , send malicious information to other clients through this . These are just few of the security threats and attacks in wireless environments .With the advancing technologies there many more possible security threats that can be faced by these networks in the future. V. BASIC REQUIREMENTS IN WIRELESS NETWORK SECURITY With the vulnerability of wireless networks ,security and countering o such malicious attacks have become one of the top priorities addressed by enterprises ,corporate as well as research fields in IT .There are many pints to be considered when the security of a network is concerned the most important f which are : authentication, accountability and encryption . A. Authentication: This is very familiar to anyone using a network in his or her work place or even accessing he email on the internet and the very first step in promoting a secure wireless network . .There many different ways of authentication and many different tools and methods have been used over the years in order.. make the primary process, more reliable and fool prof.Some of the most widely used methods are : a) User name and Password combinations generally defined as something that a person knows. b) Smart Card, RFIDs and Token technologies also known as something that a person has c) Biometric Solutions such as finger printing , retina scanning which can be generally defined as something that a person is or are. Now the reliability of each one of these methods can vary depending on the level on which it has been implemented .In the case very low level authentication s only one kind of method I used to secure the network .One of the weakest forms of authentication can be considered as the use of only ID card or token technologies as if a person looses this , he can compromise the security of the network .Even in the case of username and password the strength of the authentication is only as good as the complexity of the information used as username or even password .People generally prefer to use passwords that are easy to remember but also known to many other people in that organization or even outside One of the much better ways of securing a network through authentication is to use biometric solutions such as fingerprinting or retina scanning .But of course technology has advanced to the extend that even fingerprints or even retinas can be forged .Nowadays a number of methods of combinatio nal methods are used as authentication with high security premises or networks guarded by more than two or three kinds of authentications . B. Accountability After a user has been authenticated to use the network it is important to have t able to track the computer usage of each person using the network so that incase of any foul play the person responsible can be held responsible .When the networks were very small it was very easy f a network administrator to track the usage of each person on a network .But with huge networks, remote access facilities and of course the wireless networks it has become quite a difficult task .AS mentioned earlier , there are many ways in which a hacker can make himself difficult to track down .Many softwares and firmwares have been created which is used in conjecture with the authentication protocols inoder to make the wireless network more secure and robust . C. Encryption: This is the most important step in building and securing a strong wireless network infrastructure .he steps generally followed for this are : a) Methods based on public key infrastructure (PKI) b) Using high bit encryption scheme c) Algorithm used for encryption must be well known and proven to be very unbreakable. Current wireless network security solutions can be classified into three broad categories: a) unencrypted solutions b)encrypted solutions c) combination. In this paper with emphasis as explained in the abstract will eb on encrypted solutions for wireless security. A brief discussion on the unencrypted methods has still been given for basic understanding. I n the case of encryption based security protocols ,a details description is given about the ones that are commonly used in wireless LANS in this paper .After which the latest and developing technologies will be discussed .The three major generations of security as existing today and also cited in many papers ,journals and magazines are as follows : 1) WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy) 2) WPA (Wi-Fi Protected Access) 3) WPA2 The image below shows the layer in which the wireless network security protocols come into play which is of course the link layer: Fig-1: 802.11 AND OSI MODEL VI. WIRELESS SECURITY UNENCRYPTED A. MAC Registration: This is one of the weakest methods network security..MAC registration was basically used to secure university residential networks as college apartments or dorm rooms. The basic way of doing this is to configure DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) to lease IP address to only a know set of MAC address which can be obtained manually by running automated scripts on a network server so basically any person with a valid registration can enter into the network .Session logs also cannot be generated because of which accounting of the logs become impossible. Last but not the least since this method of securing was basically used for switched and wired networks encryption was never included. B. Firewalls: In this method, network authentication is one through either HTTP( Hyper text Transfer Protocol),HTTPS or telnet .When an authentication requirement is received by the network it is directed to the authentication server .On validating the authentication the firewalls add rules to the IP address provided to that user , This IP address also has timer attached to it in order to indicate the rule time out of this IP address. When executed through HTTPS it is basically a session based as well as a secure process .But any other process which is adapted from a switched wired network firewalls does not provided encryption. C. Wireless Firewall Gateways : One of the most latest as well as considerably fool proof method in unencrypted solutions in Wireless Firewall Gateways or WFGs.This is a single wireless gate way is integrated with firewall, router, web server and DHCP server and its because of all these being in one system that makes WFGS a very secure wireless security solution. When a user connects to the WFG, he/she receives a IP address form the DHCP serve .Then the web server ( HTTPS) asks for a user name and password and this is executed by the PHP ( Hypertext Preprocessor).Address spoofing and unauthorized networks are avoided by PHP as the DHCP logs are constantly compare with the current updated ARP(Address Resolution Protocol).This verifies that the computer that is connect to the network is using he the IP address that has been leased to it by the DHCP server .Then this information is passed on to the authentication server which in turn adds rules to this IP address .Up ne the expiration of the DHCP lease the sessions ar e terminated . The WFGS hence make the authentication and accountably pat f the network more reliable ,But as this is also an unencrypted method it lacks the most important accept of security. VII. WEP-WIRED EQUIVALENT PRIVACY This protocol was written in accordance with the security requirements required for IEE 802.11 wireless LAN protocol .IT is adapted from the wired LAN system and hence the security and privacy provided by it is also equivalent to the security and privacy provided a wired LAN. Through its an optional part of wireless network security, it will give a considerably secure networking environment. The algorithm used in WEP is known as the RC4(Rivest Cipher 4) .In this method a pseudo random number is generated using encryption keys of random lengths .This is then bound with the data bits using a OR(XOR) functionality in order t generate an encrypted data that is then send .Too look at in more in detail : A. Sender Side: The pseudo random number is generated using the 24 bit IV(initialization Vector ) given by the administrator network and also a 40 r 104 bit secret key or WEP key given by the wireless device itself. Which is then added together and passed on to theWEP PRNG (Pseudo Random Number Generator).At the same time the plain text along with an integrity algorithms combined together to form ICV (integrity check value) .The pseudo number and the ICV are then combined together to form a cipher text by sending them through an RC4.This cipher text is then again combined with IV to form the final encrypted message which is then send. Fig-2: WEP SENDER SIDE B. Receiver Side: In the receiver side the message is decrypted in five steps .Firs the preshared key and the encrypted message are added together .The result is then passed through yet another PRNG .The resulting number is passed through an CR4 algorithm and this resulting in retrieving the plain text .This again combines with another integrity algorithm to form a new ICV which is then compared with the previous ICV t check for integrity. Fig-3: WEP RECIEVER SIDE C. Brief Descriptions: a) Initialization Vector : are basically random bit the size f which is generally 24 bits but it also depends on the encryption algorithm .This IV is also send to the receiver side as it is required for decrypting the data send . b) Preshared Key: is more or less like a password .This is basically provided by the network administrator and is shared between the access point and all network users c) Pseudo Random Number Generator: This basically creating a unique secret key for each packet sends through the network. This is done by using some 5 to at most 13 characters in preshared key and also by using randomly taken characters from IV. d) ICV and Integrated Algorithm: This is used to encrypt the plain text or data and also to create a check value which can be then compared y the receiver side when it generates its own ICV .This is done using CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Code) technique to create a checksum .For WEP, the CRC-32 of the CRC family is used. D. RC4 Algorithm: RC$ algorithm is not only proprietary to WEP .IT can also be called a random generator, stream cipher etc .Developed in RSA laboratories in 1987 , this algorithm uses logical functions to be specific XOR to add the key to the data . Figure 5: RC4 Algorithm E. Drawbacks of WEP: There are many drawbacks associated with the WEP encryptions. There are also programs now available in the market which can easily hack through these encryption leaving the network using WEP vulnerable to malicious attacks: Some of the problems faced by WEP: WEP does not prevent forgery of packets. WEP does not prevent replay attacks. An attacker cans simply record and replay packets as desired and they will be accepted as legitimate WEP uses RC4 improperly. The keys used are very weak, and can be brute-forced on standard computers in hours to minutes, using freely available software. WEP reuses initialization vectors. A variety of available Cryptanalytic methods can decrypt data without knowing the encryption key WEP allows an attacker to undetectably modify a message without knowing the encryption key. Key management is lack and updating is poor Problem in the RC-4 algorithm. Easy forging of authentication messages. VIII. WPA -WIFI PROTECTED ACCESS WPA was developed by the WI-FI alliance to overcome most of the disadvantages of WEP. The advantage for the use is that they do not have t change the hardware when making the change from WEP to WPA. WPA protocol gives a more complex encryption when compared to TKIP and also with the MC in this it also helps to counter against bit flipping which are used by hackers in WEP by using a method known as hashing .The figure below shows the method WPA encryption. Figure 6: WAP Encryption Algorithm (TKIP) As seen it is almost as same as the WEP technique which has been enhanced by using TKIP but a hash is also added before using the RC4 algorithm to generate the PRNG. This duplicates the IV and a copy this is send to the next step .Also the copy is added with the base key in order to generate another special key .This along with the hashed IV is used to generate the sequential key by the RC4.Then this also added to the data or plan text by using the XOR functionality .Then the final message is send and it is decrypted by using the inverse of this process. A. TKIP (Temporal Key Integrity Protocol): The confidentiality and integrity of the network is maintained in WPA by using improved data encryption using TKIP. This is achieved by using a hashing function algorithm and also an additional integrity feature to make sure that the message has not been tampered with The TKIP has about four new algorithms that do various security functions: a) MIC or Micheal: This is a coding system which improves the integrity of the data transfer via WPA .MIC integrity code is basically 64bits long but is divided into 32 bits of little Endean words or least significant bits for example let it be (K0 , K1) .This method is basically used to make that the data does not get forged . b) Countering Replay: There is one particular kind of forgery that cannot me detected by MIC and this is called a replayed packet .Hackers do this by forging a particular packet and then sending it back at another instance of time .In this method each packet send by the network or system will have a sequence number attached to it .This is achieved by reusing the IV field .If the packet received at the receiver has an out of order or a smaller sequencing number as the packet received before this , it is considered as a reply and the packet is hence discarded by the system . c) Key mixing: In WEP a secure key is generated by connecting end to end the base layer which is a 40 bit or 104 bit sequence obtained for the wireless device with the 24 bit IV number obtained from the administrator or the network. In the case of TKIP, the 24 bit base key is replaced by a temporary key which has a limited life time .It changes from one destination to another. This is can be explained in Phase one of the two phases in key mixing. In Phase I, the MAC address of the end system or the wireless router is mixed with the temporary base key .The temporary key hence keeps changing as the packet moves from one destination to another as MAC address for any router gateway or destination will be unique. In Phase II, the per packet sequence key is also encrypted by adding a small cipher using RC4 to it. This keeps the hacker from deciphering the IV or the per packet sequence number. d) Countering Key Collision Attacks or Rekeying : This is basically providing fresh sequence of keys which can then be used by the TKIP algorithm .Temporal keys have already been mentioned which has a limited life time .The other two types f keys provided are the encryption keys and the master keys .The temporal keys are the ones which are used by the TKIP privacy and authentication algorithms . B. Advantages of WPA: The advantage of WPA over WEP can be clearly understood from the above descriptions .Summarising a few: a) Forgeries to the data are avoided by using MIC b) WPA can actively avoid packet replay by the hacker by providing unique sequence number to each packets. c) Key mixing which generates temporal keys that change at every station and also per packet sequence key encryption. d) Rekeying which provides unique keys for that consumed by the various TKIP algorithms. IX. WPA2-WIFI PROTECTED ACCESS 2 WPA 2 is the as the name suggests is a modified version of WPA in which Micheal has be replaced with AES based algorithm known as CCMP instead of TKIP .WPA can operate in two modes: one is the home mode and he enterprise mode .In the home mode all he users are requires to use a 64 bit pass phrase when accessing the network. This is the sort encryption used in wireless routers used at home or even in very small offices. The home version has the same problems which are faced by users of WEP and the original WPA security protocol. The enterprise version is of course for used by larger organisation where security of the network is too valuable to be compromised .This is based on 802.1X wireless architecture , authentication framework know as RADIUS and the another authentication protocol from the EAP ( Extensible Authentication Protocol ) Family which is EAP-TLS and also a secure key . A. 802.1X: Figure 7: 802.1X Authentication Protocol In order to understand the security protocols used in WPA2 it is important know a little bit about the 802.1X architecture for authentication. This was developed in order to overcome many security issues in 802.11b protocol. It provides much better security for transmission of data and its key strength is of course authentication There are three important entities in 802.1x protocol which is the client, authenticator and authentication. a) Client : is the STA(station) in a wireless area network which is trying to access the network ,This station could be fixed , portable or even mobile. It of course requires client software which helps it connect to the network. b) Authenticator: This is yet another name given to an AP (Access Point).This AP receives the signal from the client and send it over to the network which the client requires connection from There are two parts to the AP i.e. the non control port and the control port which is more of a logical partitioning than an actual partition..The non control port receives the signal and check its authentication to see if the particular client is allowed to connect to the network .If the authentication is approved the control port of the AP is opened for the client to connect with the network. c) Authentication: RADIUS (Remote Authentication Dial in User Service) server .This has its own user database table which gives the user that has access to the he network, this makes it easier for the APs as user information database need not be stored in the AP .The authentication in RADIUS is more user based than device based .RADIUS makes the security system more scalable and manageable. Figure 8: EAP/RADIUS Message Exchange B. EAP (Extended Authentication Protocol): The key management protocol used in WAP2 is the EAP (Extended Authentication Protocol).It can also be called as EAPOW (EAP over wireless).Since there are many versions of this protocols in the EAP family it will advisable to choose the EAP protocol which is very best suited for that particular network .The diagram and the steps following it will describe how a suitable EAP can be selected for that network : a) Step1: By checking the previous communication records of the node using a network analyser program, it can be easily detected if any malicious or considerably compromising packets has been send to other nodes or received from to her nodes to this node . b) Step 2: By checking the previous logs for the authentication protocols used, the most commonly used authentication protocol used and the most successful authentication protocol can be understood. Figure 9: EAP Authentication with Method Selection Mechanism c) Step 3: The specifications of the node itself have to be understood such as the operating system used the hardware software even the certificate availability of the node. After all this has been examined the following steps can be run in order to determine and execute the most suitable EAP authentication protocol: 1. Start 2. if (communication_record available) then read communication_record; if(any_suspicious_packets_from_the_other_node) then abort authentication; go to 5; else if (authentication record available) then read authentication record; if (successful authentication available) then read current_node_resources; if (current_node_resources comply with last_successful_method) then method = last_successful_method; go to 4; else if (current_node_resources comply with most_successful_method) then method = most_successful_method; go to 4; else go to 3; else go to 3; else go to 3; else go to 3; 3. read current_node_resources; execute method_selection(current_node_resources); 4. execute authentication_process; 5.End X. RSN-ROBUST SECURITY NETWORKS RSN was developed with reference to IEEE 802.11i wireless protocol .This connection can provide security from very moderate level to high level encryption schemes .The main entities of a 802.11i is same as that of 802.1x protocol which is the STA (Client), AP and the AS (authentication server).RSN uses TKIP or CCMP is used for confidentiality and integrity protection of the data while EAP is used as the authentication protocol. RSN is a link layer security i.e it provides encryption from one wireless station to its AP to from one wireless station to another..It does not provided end to end security IT can only be used for wireless networks and in the case of hybrid networks only the wireless part of the network . The following are the features of secure network that are supported by RSN ( WRITE REFERENCE NUMBER HERE) : a) Enhanced user authentication mechanisms b) Cryptographic key management c) Data Confidentiality d) Data Origin and Authentication Integrity e) Replay Protection. A. Phases of RSN: RSN protocol functioning can be divided in the five distinct phases .The figure as well as the steps will describe the phases in brief: a) Discovery Phase: This can also be called as Network and Security Capability discovery of the AP.In this phase the AP advertises that it uses IEE 802.11i security policy .An STA which wishes to communicate to a WLAN using this protocol will up n receiving this advertisement communicate with the AP .The AP gives an option to the STA on the cipher suite and authentication mechanism it wishes to use during the communication with the wireless network. Figure 9: Security States of RSN b) Authentication Phase: Also known as Authentication and Association Phase .In the authentication phase, the AP uses its non control part to check the authentication proved by the STA with the AS .Any other data other than the authentication data is blocked by the AP until the AS return with the message that the authentication provided by the STA is valid .During this phase the client has no direct connection with the RADIUS server . c) Key Generation and Distribution: During this phase cryptographic keys are generated by both the AP and the STA. Communication only takes place between the AP and STA during this phase. d) Protected Data Transfer Phase: This phase as the name suggest is during which data is transferred through and from the STA that initiated .the connection through the AP to the STA on the other end of the network. e) Connection Termination Phase: Again as the name suggests the data exchanged is purely between the AP and the STA to tear down the connection

Lord of the Flies vs. the Destructors Essay

Fiction looks at all ranges of topics through the eyes of so many diverse characters. Lord of the Flies and The Destructors is no different in the sense you see two extremely striking situations through the eyes of surprising characters. These stories both take a look at society and the primitive aspects it can have. The main characters in the story are both children of young ages exhibiting surprising and sometimes extremely shocking behavior displaying a loss of innocence. They differ in the sense that Lord of Flies looks at how savage a human can get in desperate situations while the other is how savage a person can get against a society that feel victimized against. These two novels have similarities that can be easily identified. They both display groups of adolescents that are interacting with extreme situations. Lord of Flies depicts children stranded on an island and they must come together in order to find these solutions. Desperation sets in which motivates them to start acting more and more savage as time goes on. This is similar to The Destructors because the short story displays a similar group of young children who display savage behavior to a community. While one is a residential community and another is an island, the island represents a community for these boys for the time of the story because they are stranded upon it. Both stories display a power struggle through two characters in them. Lord of The Flies shows this through Jack and Ralph and In the Destructors this is seen through Trevor and Blackie. Jack and Ralph both attempted to become chief of the new tribe, Ralph winning by a few votes. However, as time goes on their primitive behaviors shine through creating a divide between the children and Jack develops his own tribe. Jack’s influence motivates the children to become violent and savage toward Ralph and his group, resulting in killing one of Ralph’s friend, Piggy. All of the teamwork and civil behavior that Ralph represents is slowly gone until the children all turn into monsters, which Jack represents. Ralph was about structure and finding a rescue, which is evident in his design of two groups, one for food and one for a fire signal while jack was all about savage behavior and power over the other children. In the Destructors, Blackie and Trevor both have potential to be the leader of the Wormsley Common Gang and it can be seen through their dialogue that they are both aware that they want it. Blackie tries to display this by attempting to prevent Trevor from voting on what kind of trouble they get into when he late to their meeting but Trevor does not allow him. The peak of this struggle is when are discussing ideas and Trevor tells them about destroying Old Misery’s house from the inside. Blackie attempts his best to discourage with the potential of police and the inability to accomplish this but Trevor continue to push the idea until it is voted for and chosen. This symbolized the end of Blackie’s reign of the group and when one member asks â€Å"How do we start?† Blackie simply walks away saying, â€Å" He’ll tell you.† Implying that he knows what has occurred and realizing his role of leadership is taken over. Both groups in each story displayed how easily a dynamic can change through Power. When you look at the stories from another angle, you can see that the messages they have differ extremely. Lord of the Flies was all about human nature and the ends it can go. This novel is a timeless one because of the message it sends through the least likely characters, young boys. The Destructors is a more believable story because the type of violence that is seen in the story. While damage to someone’s home is awful and the manner in which they did it was extremely special, Lord of The Flies uses violence against one another and results in psychotic breaks and children losing their lives at the hands of others. The longer these children are with one another, they start to lose more of their humanity and gain more primal instincts in ways of acting. Jack is the best candidate to display this because of how he grows more and more corrupt. After starting his own tribe, he has enabled himself to dictate what he feels his followers should do. He allowed them to become savage as well. If he felt that other children needed to be punished, he felt not hesitation and even was to the point of murdering another child. He started wearing clay masks, which represents the symbolism of having a new more primal faà §ade. The novel wraps up with Ralph being rescued but crying because he reflects on everything that has happened and how far these young children have fallen and to what points they all reached. The Destructors really depicts a group of children who aim to destroy a neighborhood leaving an old man’s house for last. These children differ from the ones in Lord of The Flies because though they do some pretty questionable acts, it is more delinquency rather than primal acts. These boys are doing violent actions because of the violence through the war they witness around them. With World War II going on, these children are witness to bombings often leaving them feeling with the need to do something. They decide to become a gang that will make their mark around London, causing crime one more extreme than the next. Trevor motivates these boys to destroy an old man’s house but instead of normally destroying it while he is away, they decide to wreck it from the inside out. Trevor says, â€Å"We’d be like worms, don’t you see, in an apple.† (pg. 12) However, mid construction the old man, Old Misery, comes home unexpected and is locked away until the job is finished. The ending displays Old Misery sobbing as his house is destroyed and the lorry that was around ended the story by laughing saying â€Å"There’s nothing personal but you got to admit it’s funny.† (pg. 22) This is actually the exact opposite reaction of what Lord of The Flies displayed because even though Mr. Thomas was sobbing at his loss similar to Ralph’s reaction, the Lorry laughed at the comedy of the situation. These stories all depict children doing things that typically we would not expect to see in society. However, the lack of a society in both novels has allowed behavior of this magnitude to occur. These stories show us that though they are different kinds of crimes and in different context, society is what can be considered the common thread through both stories. Society and it’s influence can really effect the people that are in it and if you are in a society that doesn’t provide a positive structure, you could display the actions seen in Lord of The Flies or The Destructors.

The Changing Attitudes Toward Athletics - 1270 Words

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Public information is reported regularly through newspapers and journals and specialization of magazines and guides on sports began to appear, where rule s and statistics were publicized. Permanent structures for harness racing began to appear in cities. During the 1870’s, four critical steps occurred to legitimize racing, and thereafter, sport: the creation of the first establishment dedicated to racing (1871), the first sporting journal (1875), the formation of the National Association of Trotting Horse Breeders (1876) and the establishment of a standard breed of trotting horse (1879) The legitimacy as well as new income realities allowed money to beShow MoreRelatedPsychology of Business - Nike She Runs1414 Words   |  6 Pagesfunction within a globalized, diverse, highly competitive and rapidly changing market. This calls for new approaches, strategies, organizations and understandings. 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