The Changing Attitudes Toward Athletics - 1270 Words

The changing attitudes toward athletics began in the mid 1820’s when sport became commercialized, publicized and organizations began to form. Harness Racing became the first modernized sport which seen change thanks to growth and the transformation of America. You first begin to see the formation of organization at the local, regional and national level. Rules became formal and written and legitimized by the organization where before, rules were based on local customs, so variations were plentiful. Competition also changed, going from local, to national and even international. People began to have the chance to establish themselves in sport with additional opportunities to make money. Professionals first began to emerge during this period as harness racing as the lines between spectator and participant became clearly defined. 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Fabrication of yba2cu3o7-δ and determination of its superconducting transition temperature - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 28 Words: 8414 Downloads: 10 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Statistics Essay Did you like this example? Fabrication of YBa2Cu3O7-ÃŽÂ ´ and Determination of its Superconducting Transition Temperature A superconducting material is one which below a certain critical temperature exhibits, amongst other remarkable traits; a total lack of resistivity, perfect diamagnetism and a change in the character of the specific heat capacity. The BCS theory describes perfectly the phenomenon of superconductivity in low temperature superconductors, but cannot explain the interaction mechanism in high temperature superconductors. In order to determine the superconducting transition temperature of two laboratory fabricated batches of YBCO their resistivity and specific heat capacity were measured as functions of temperature. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Fabrication of yba2cu3o7-ÃŽÂ ´ and determination of its superconducting transition temperature" essay for you Create order From resistivity measurements the two batches were found to have transition temperatures of 86.8( ±0.8)K and 87.8( ±0.4)K respectively which were used to infer their oxygen contents of 6.82( ±0.01) and 6.83( ±0.01) atoms per molecule respectively. These agreed with XRD data and the literature upper value of the transition temperature of 95K (with an oxygen content of 6.95). Specific heat capacity measurements of the first batch gave questionable confirmation of these results, but could not be performed on the second batch due to time constraints. 19 January 2010Page 14 of 14Josephine Butler College I. Introduction and Theory A superconducting material is defined as one in which a finite fraction of the electrons are condensed into a superfluid, which extends over the entire volume of the system and is capable of motion as a whole. At zero temperature the condensation is complete and all of the electrons participate in the forming of the superfluid. As the temperature of the material approaches the superconducting transition temperature (or critical temperature, given by Tc) the fraction of electrons within the superfluid tends to zero and the system undergoes a second order phase transition from a superconducting to a normal state.[i] The phenomenon of superconductivity was first observed by Kamerlingh Onnes in Leiden in 1911 during an electrical analysis of mercury at low temperatures. He found that at a temperature around 4K the resistance of mercury fell abruptly to a value which could not be distinguished from zero.[iii] The next great leap in experimental superconductivity came in 1986 when MÃÆ' ¼ller and Bednorz fabricated the first cuprate superconductor[v]. After its lack of resistivity one of the most striking features of a superconductor is that it exhibits perfect diamagnetism. First seen in 1933 by Meissner and Ochsenfeld, diamagnetism in superconductors manifests itself in two ways. The first manifestation occurs when a superconducting material in the normal state is cooled past the critical temperature and then placed in a magnetic field which will then be excluded from the superconductor. The second appears when a superconductor (in its normal state) is placed in a magnetic field and the flux is allowed to penetrate. If it is then cooled past the critical temperature it will expel the magnetic flux in a phenomenon know as the Meissner effect.[vi] This can be seen qualitatively in figure 1. In 1957, Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer managed to construct a wave function in which electrons are paired. Know as the BCS theory of superconductivity it is used as a complete microscopic theory for superconductivity in metals. One of the key features of the BCS theory is the prediction of an energy gap, the consequences of which are the thermal and most of the electromagnetic properties of superconducting materials. The key conceptual element to this theory is the formation of Cooper pairs close to the Fermi level. Although direct electrostatic interactions between electrons are repulsive it is possible for the distortion of the positively charged ionic lattice by the electron to attract other electrons. Thus, screening by ionic motion can yield a net, attractive interaction between electrons (as long as they have energies which are separated by less than the energy of a typical phonon) causing them to pair up, albeit over long distances. Given that these electrons can experience a net attraction it is not unreasonable that the electrons might form bound pairs, effectively forming composite bosons with integer spin of either 0 or 1. This is made even more likely by the influence of the remaining electrons on the interacting pair. The BCS theory takes this idea one step further and constructs a ground state in which all of the electrons form bound pairs. This electron-phonon interaction invariably leads to one of the three experimental proofs of the BCS theory. A piece of theory known as the isotope effect provided a crucial key to the development of the BCS theory. It was found that for a given element the super conducting transition temperature, TC, was inversely proportional to the square root of the isotope mass, M (equation 1). TCà ¢Ã‹â€ ?M-12 (1)[vii] This same relationship holds for characteristic vibrational frequencies of atoms in a crystal lattice and therefore proves that the phenomenon of superconductivity in metals is related to the vibrations of the lattice through which the electrons move. However this only holds true for low temperature superconductors (a fact which will be discussed in more detail at a later stage in this section). Both of the two further experimental proofs of BCS theory come from the energy gap in the superconducting material. The first proof is in the fact that it was predicted and actually exists (figure 2) and the second lies in its temperature dependence. From band theory, energy bands are a consequence of a static lattice structure. However, in a superconducting material, the energy gap is much smaller and results from the attractive force between the electrons within the lattice. This gap occurs Ά either side of the Fermi level, EF, and in conventional superconductors arises only below TC and varies with temperature (as shown in figure 3). Figure 2: Dependence of the superconducting and normal density of states, DS and Dn respectively. From Superconductivity, Poole, C.P., Academic Press (2005), page164 At zero Kelvin all of the electrons in the material are accommodated below the energy gap and a minimum energy of 2Ά must be supplied in order to excite them across the gap. BCS theory predicts equation 2 which has since been experimentally proven, ΆT=0=CkBTC (2) [viii] where theoretically the constant C is 1.76 although experimentally in real superconductors it can vary between 1.75 and 2.45. Figure 3: Temperature dependence of the BCS gap function, Ά. Adapted from The Superconducting State, A.D.C. Grassie, Sussex University Press (1975), page43 As before stated it has been found that the first of these BCS proofs does not hold for high temperature superconductors. In these materials it has been found that in the relation stated as equation 1, the exponential tends towards zero as opposed to minus one half. This indicates that for high temperature superconductors it is not the electron-phonon interaction that gives rise to the superconducting state. Numerous interactions have been explored in an attempt to try and determine the interaction responsible for high temperature superconductivity but so far none have been successful. Figure 4: A plot of TC against TF derived from penetration depth measurements. Taken from Magnetic-field penetration depth in K3C60 measured by muon spin relaxation, Uemura Y.J. et al. Nature (1991) 352, page 607. In figure 4 it can be seen that the superconducting elements constrained by BCS theory lie far from the vast majority of new high temperature superconducting materials which appear to lie on a line parallel to TF, the Fermi temperature and TB, the Bose-Einstein condensation temperature, indicating a different interaction method. One of the most extensively studied properties of the superconductor is its specific heat capacity and how its behaviour changes with temperature (seen in figure 5). It is known that above the transition temperature the normal state specific heat of a material, Cn, can be given by equation 3 (below) which consists of a linear term from the conduction electrons and a cubic phonon term (the addition Schottky contribution has been ignored in this case and ÃŽÂ ³ and A are constants). Cn=ÃŽÂ ³T+AT3 (3)[ix] Due to the aforementioned energy gap it is also predicted by BCS theory that at the superconducting transition temperature there will be a discontinuity in the specific heat capacity of the material of the order 1.43 as seen in equation 4 (where CS is the superconducting state heat capacity) and figure 5. CS-ÃŽÂ ³TCÃŽÂ ³TC=1.43 (4)[x] However for high temperature superconductors this ratio is likely to be much smaller due to a large contribution from the phonon term in the normal state specific heat capacity. Figure 5: Heat Capacity of Nb in the normal and superconducting states showing the sharp discontinuity at TC. Taken from The Solid State Third Edition, H.M Rosenberg, Oxford University Press (1988), page 245 Now that the concept of the high temperature superconductor has been explained this report can return to one of the initial concepts of how the behaviour of resistivity changes with temperature. A low temperature superconductor is likely to obey the T5 Bloch law at low temperatures and so its resistivity will fall to zero in a non-linear region. In contrast the resistivity of a high temperature superconductor should fall to zero before it leaves the linear region. The resistivity profile of a high temperature superconductor can also be used to determine its purity. By comparing the range of temperatures over which the transition occurs with the transition temperature itself an indicator of purity can be determined (equation 5, where PI is the purity indicator and ΆT the magnitude of the region over which the transition occurs). In this case a value of zero would indicate a perfectly pure sample. ΆTTC=PI (5)[xi] Other than for scientific purposes, within the laboratory, the biggest application of superconductors at the moment is to produce to the large, stable magnetic fields required for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). Due to the costliness of high temperature superconductors the magnets used in these applications are usually low temperature superconductors. It is for this same reason that the commercial applications of high temperature superconductors are still extremely limited (that and the fact that all high temperature superconducting materials discovered so far are brittle ceramics which cannot be shaped into anything useful e.g. wires). Yttrium barium copper oxide (or YBCO) is just one of the aforementioned high temperature, cuprate superconductors. Its crystal structure consists of two CuO2 planes, held apart by a single atom of yttrium, either side of which sits a BaO plane followed by Cu-O chains. This can be seen in greater detail in figure 6. Figure 6: The orthorhombic structure of YBCO required for superconductivity. Adapted from High-Temperature Superconductivity in Curpates, A. Mourachkine, Kluwer Academic Publishers (2002), page 40 If the structure only has 6 atoms of oxygen per unit cell then the Cu-O chains do not exist and the compound behaves as an antiferromagnetic insulator. In order to create the Cu-O chains and for the compound to change to a superconductor at low temperatures it has to be doped gradually with oxygen. The superconducting state has been found to exist in compounds with oxygen content anywhere from 6.4 to 7 with optimal doping being found to occur at an oxygen content of about 6.95.[xii] This report intends to determine the superconducting transition temperature of a laboratory fabricated sample of YBCO. This will be achieved by measuring how both its resistivity and specific heat capacity vary as a function of temperature. II.I Fabrication and Calibration Methods To ensure an even firing of the sample within the furnace and to find out where in the furnace the heating profile was closest to that of the actual heating program, three temperature profiles of the furnace were taken while heating. The length of the furnace was measured with a metre ruler and found to be 35 ±1cm. Four k-type thermocouples were then evenly spaced (every 11.5 ±0.5cm) along the length of it, as can be seen in figure 7 below. Figure 7: Transverse section of the furnace. Thermocouples are numbered 1 to 4 and the length of the furnace surrounded by heating coils is shown in green, blocked at either end by a radiation shield. Temperature profiles were taken for each of the temperature programs displayed in figure 8; all started at room temperature and were left to run until the temperature displayed by the thermocouples had stopped increasing. Target Temp ( °C) Heating Rate ( °Cmin-1) Elapsed time between data (s) 350 10 180 650 15 180 950 10 300 Figure 8: Details of furnace programs used to obtain the temperature profiles shown in section III. While this was being done samples of YBCO were fabricated. The chemical equation for the fabrication of YBCO is as follows in equation 6 and the amounts of the reactants required to fabricate 0.025 mol are displayed in figure 9 Y2O3+4BaCO3+6CuIIOà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  2YBa2Cu3O7-ÃŽÂ ´ (6) Reactant Mol RMM (gmol-1) Mass (g) Y2O3 0.0125 225.81 2.8226 BaCO3 0.050 197.34 9.8675 CuIIO 0.075 79.54 5.9655 Figure 9: Quantities of reactants required to fabricate 0.025 mol YBCO. Relative molecular masses (RMMs) calculated using relative atomic masses The procedure for fabrication can be seen in figure 10 and using this technique two batches of YBCO were fabricated, the first yielded just one pellet and the second batch yielded four. Figure 10: Describes the steps taken during fabrication of superconducting YBCO samples. In order to obtain a more accurate value of the temperature within the sample space of the cryostat the resistance of a platinum thermometer was measured as a function of temperature. In order to do this a Pt100 platinum thermometer was varnished to one side of a cryostat probe and connected via a four point probe to a power source (as can be seen in figure 11), an ammeter and a voltmeter (Keithley 2000 DMMs). The ammeter and the voltmeter were connected to a computer in order that live data could be fed straight into a LabView program (appendix 2) which would record the data to both a much great accuracy and precision than could be done by a human. Although a stable and constant current was used it was felt, in the interest of good practise, necessary to add the live feed ammeter into the LabView program as tiny fluctuations in current could have potentially changed results which would not have been noticed otherwise. The probe was then placed in the sample space which was subsequently vacuumed (to a pressure of 810-4 Torr) and flushed with helium twice. The sample space was then left full of helium due to its high thermal conductivity. The cryostat was cooled with liquid nitrogen to a temperature of approximately 77K and the LabView program left to record the change in the resistance of the platinum thermometer (using Ohms law, V=IR) and its corresponding temperature (from the intelligent temperature controller or ITC) while the cryostat heated up naturally. The temperature increase function of the program was not used as leaving the cryostat to heat up as slowly as possible allowed data to be gathered over a much greater period of time which lead to a relationship with less error. This relationship was plotted in order that the temperature dependant resistance profile of the platinum thermometer could be incorporated into the LabView program for use in future experiments to determine more accura tely the temperature of the sample space. While this was being done the dimensions of the cut samples were measured using vernier callipers and weighed in order to determine a density for YBCO. Each dimension was measured six times (to reduce random error) by two different people (to reduce systematic error). The off cuts of each batch of YBCO were then sent off for X-ray diffraction analysis in order to determine the chemical composition of the fabricated samples. The diffraction was carried out using a wavelength of 1.54184Ç º. II.II Fabrication and Calibration Results, Analysis and Interpretation The three temperature profiles of the furnace can be seen below in figure 12. The results are slightly skewed due to one end of the furnace having been left open in order to allow the thermocouples to sit inside the furnace. This can be seen back in figure 7. The measurements were taken by eye over a 10 second time period. It was therefore decided that the errors on the time should be  ±5 seconds and the error on the temperature  ±1K, both of which are unfortunately too small to be seen on the profiles. The data points were fitted to cubic curves as this best matched the physical behaviour of the heating. Figure 12: Temperature profiles of the furnace. The temperature of the program is shown in black crosses and the temperatures of thermocouples 1, 2, 3 and 4 are shown in yellow, red, green and blue respectively. It can immediately be seen from figure 12 that, during the initial stages of heating, the temperatures of all of the thermocouples lag behind that of the furnace program, specifically those of the thermocouples at the open end of the furnace (1 and 2). This can be accounted for due to poor thermal insulation at the open end of the furnace. It can also be seen that as the furnace reaches its required temperature and begins its dwell time the temperatures of the thermocouples continue to rise for a short duration before also levelling out. The most likely reason for this is that once the furnace reaches its required temperature the program will instantaneously cut the current to the heating coils. They will still however have thermal energy in them which will leach through the ceramic inner of the furnace into the firing space itself. Another striking feature of the profiles that can be seen is that the longer the furnace has to reach the required temperature, the more linear the increase in temperature is throughout the furnace. It was therefore deduced that had the furnace been sealed at both ends with radiation rods and covers, then the centre of the furnace would be that which had a temperature profile closest to that of the furnace program. It was also decided that in order to ensure a steady, linear rate of heating, a slower increase in temperature would be used. The masses of the batches before and after calcinations were compared and were found to have decreased by an average of 2.44( ±0.01)% of their initial masses. This was expected as one of the by-products created during the calcination of BaCO3 is CO2 which would have been removed from the furnace during this heating period therefore reducing the mass of the compound. The weights of the samples from batch two before and after annealing were compared and it was found that each of the samples of YBCO had increased in mass by an average of 3.51( ±0.03)% of their initial masses. This was unexpected as during the annealing process the compound is reduced and so should lose mass. One possible explanation for this could be a simultaneous reduction and oxygen doping of the compound in order to try and fill the copper and oxygen chains shown in figure 6. The densities of both batches of YBCO were calculated by weighing each of the samples from that batch and dividing their masses by their measured volumes. The densities of batches one and two were found to be 5.25( ±0.04)gcm-3 and 3.5( ±0.1)gcm-3 respectively. The greater error stated with the value of the density of the second batch of YBCO is a result of an error on the mean being taken whereas the error on the density of the first batch is merely propagated from those of its volume and mass as there was only one sample. When literature values of the density of YBCO were consulted it was found that the compound has a variable density of anywhere from 4.4 to 5.3gcm-3.[xiii] When comparing this range to the experimentally determined values of this parameter it was found that the density of the first batch lay just inside the range whilst the density of the second batch lay well outside of the lower end of it. One possible reason for the very low value of the density of batch two could be that its samples were left in the press for less time than batch one during sintering. All samples were checked to see whether they exhibited the Meissner effect. All did and a photograph showing this can be seen below in figure 13 The X-ray analysis of the two laboratory fabricated batches of YBCO can be seen in figure 14 below. The intensities were recorded every 0.01 degrees and then scaled appropriately using the greatest intensity in order that they could be compared to each other. As can be seen in figure 14 when both data sets are overlaid negligible differences can be seen. This indicates that both batches have almost identical chemical compositions and structure. A reasonable amount of background noise can be seen accompanied by an offset from zero intensity which changes in magnitude as the angle of diffraction increases. This can be accounted for by two factors. The first being tiny random impurities in the batches obtained by fabrication outside of a totally clean environment. The second is that small levels of the initial reactants may have not formed the required compound during calcination and annealing. A standard diffraction pattern of YBCO produced using the same wavelength of radiation was taken from The Chemical Database Service and can be seen below in figure 15. When this is compared to the patterns of the two laboratory fabricated samples in figure 14 all of the same intensity peaks can clearly be identified. This would indicate that YBCO had been successfully fabricated. Figure 15: X-Ray diffraction pattern of YBCO6. Calculation of the structural parameters of YBa2Cu3O7-ÃŽÂ ´ and YBa2Cu4O8 under pressure, Ludwig H. A. et al., Physica C (1992) 197, 113-122. It was expected that the comparison of standard diffraction patterns of YBCO of different oxygen contents with those fabricated within the laboratory would allow their oxygen content to be deduced. This, however, could not be achieved as all of the standard patterns of YBCO found in journals and online databases from oxygen contents of 6 to 7 had extremely similar diffraction patterns. The resistance of the platinum thermometer was plotted against temperature and can be seen in figure 16. A linear relationship was fitted to the data as seen in figure 16 which produced a reduced chi squared value of 1.317 and equation 7. T=2.4958( ±0.0007)R+25.54( ±0.04) (7) The reduced chi value indicates a strong linear relationship while the equation of the line gives a resistance of 99.2( ±0.2)ÃŽÂ © at a temperature of 273.2( ±0.1)K. When compared to the technical data for this component which gives a resistance of 100.00ÃŽÂ ©[xiv] at a temperature of 273.15K, it shows very close correspondence although not within error. A temperature of one less significant figures accuracy had to be used in this calculation due to the inability of the ITC to measure temperature to any more than one decimal place. This slight difference between the reference and experimental values of the resistance of the Pt100 at a given temperature can be accounted for by the position of the ITCs heat sensor. This lies just outside of the sample space and would cause the ITCs heat sensor to detect a small increase in temperature before it was received by the Pt100 within the sample space. Thus causing the Pt100 to lag behind in temperature (even if only slightly) and would therefore cause the slightly lower resistance for the given temperature as calculated above and can be seen as a very slight systematic error. III.I Resistivity Methods One of the cut samples was fixed to the other side of the probe to the Pt100 with thermally insulating varnish and four copper wire contacts were painted onto it with electrically conductive silver paint. The separation of each of the four wires was measured with vernier callipers six times each by two different people for the same reasons as before and recorded for later calculation. A four point probe resistance measurement was used in order to avoid the indirect measuring of resistances other than just the sample resistance. The contact resistance and spreading resistance are also normally measured by a simple two point resistance measurement. The four point probe uses two separate contacts to carry current and two to measure the voltage (in order to set up a uniform current density across the sample) and can be seen in figure 17. In a four point probe the current carrying probes will still be subject to the extra resistances but this will not be true for the voltage probes which should draw little to no current due to the high impedance of the voltmeter. The potential, V, at a distance ,r, from an electrode carrying a current, I, in a material of resistivity, à ?, can be expressed by V=à ?I2à Ã¢â€š ¬r=à ?I2à Ã¢â€š ¬1S1+1S3-1S1+S2-1S2+S3 (8)[xv] where r has also been expressed in terms of the contact separations (figure 17). This can be rearranged in order to calculate the value of the resistivity of material being measured. The probe was once again inserted into the cryostat and the cryostat was cooled as detailed in section II.I. Once the sample had reached a temperature equal to that of the boiling point of liquid nitrogen a LabView program was left to run which recorded the resistance of the sample and its corresponding temperature. The program used to do this can be seen in appendix 2. Although a temperature increase function was built into the program, the cryostat was left to warm up naturally for the same reason used when calibrating the platinum thermometer. The set up for this can be seen below in figure 18. Figure 18. Schematic for the resistivity experiment. Vacuum pumps and pressure gauges have been omitted as well as the heater on the ITC as none of the bear any real relevance to the experiment. Data cables are shown in red, Pt100 in blue and sample in grey. This was repeated for each sample of fabricated YBCO at least twice and their temperature dependant resistivity profiles can be seen in section III.II III.II Resistivity Results, Analysis and Interpretations The resistance profile of the sample from the first batch was measured twice and these profiles can be seen in figure 19. Unfortunately it was not possible on this occasion to measure the four point probe contact separations on this first sample before it was removed and so these profiles could not be adjusted to those of resistivity using equation 8. However, as this transformation is simply a stretch in the y-axis, it does not change the behaviour of the transition or the value of the transition temperature obtained from the profile. It can be seen in figure 19 that although the first profile cuts out at approximately a temperature of 190 Kelvin, both profiles follow virtually the same path until that point. The first profile cuts out early due to data points being taken once every second causing the program to fail and shut down. The number of data points was then cut to one every three seconds for subsequent experiments. With measurements being taken automatically by computer (and with the Keithley multimeters ability to measure currents and voltages to 7 significant figures) the errors on the resistance were negligible ( ±0.003% of the value of the resistance) and so can not be seen in figure 19. The same is true of the errors on the temperature. Assuming that equation 7 is correct then with a  ±0.003% error on any calculated resistance, the temperature of the sample space should only have an error of  ±0.04K. Had each of the samples been perfectly pure their profiles would have a very sharp transition between the states and the transition temperature would be very clear. However as a result of the broadening of this transition due to the impurity of the samples a temperature could not be clearly defined. Had powerful enough graphing software been to hand and were the profile able to be fitted to any know curve on this software, the most reliable way to find the transition temperature would have been to plot the first derivative of resistivity with respect to temperature and then determine its maximum (corresponding to the point of inflection within the transition). This not being the case the temperature of the transition was approximated to be the temperature at the half way point in the drop between the two states. To ascertain at which points on the profile the change in state began and ended, separate lines of linear regression were fitted to the linear data in both the normal state and the superconducting state. These two lines of regression were extended closer and closer to the transition from either side until the adjusted R2 value of the lines of best fit was 0.999, which indicated an excellent linear fit. It was found upon inspection that the mid-point of the transition could be defined in two different ways; the mid point in resistivity and the mid point in temperature (the mid-point in resistivity obviously corresponding to slightly a different temperature than that found at the mid point of the temperature). This was due to a slight skew in the transition in the profile and so in order to clearly define the superconducting transition temperature a clearer approximation from the one stated before had to be made. It was therefore approximated that the temperature corresponding to the mid point in resistivity should be averaged with the mid point in temperature on the x-axis and the error be the temperature either side of this average value which either previous mid value lay. This can be seen more clearly in figure 20. Figure 20: Shows the method used to calculate the superconducting transition temperature using an expanded view of the first profile in figure 19. Lines of linear regression are shown in black either side of the area in which the transition occurs (in yellow). Both temperatures can be seen highlighted by dashed lines. By the use of this method it was determined that the transition temperatures for both of the profiles in figure 19 were 87.6( ±0.9)K and 86.0( ±0.4)K for the first and second profiles respectively. Although these do not agree with each other (within the confines set by the errors) an average was taken and found to be 86.8( ±0.8)K. The purity indicator was also calculated for each profile and found to be 0.116 and 0.104 respectively. These two values differ by approximately 10% which is reasonable considering that they are from the same sample. The resistivity profiles of the samples from batch two can be seen below in figure 21. No profiles of sample 1 could be obtained as it broke while being affixed to the probe due to its thinness. Each of the profiles shown in figure 21 displays linear behaviour in the normal state region as predicted. As stated before, lines of linear regression were fitted to the data in the normal state after the transition and reduced chi-squared tests were carried out all resulting in values between 610-5 and 210-5. Normally this might signify an over estimation of errors used with data in the trend. However, as these values were calculated without errors to begin with it merely shows that the sheer number of data points dements the result of any reasonable statistical test measuring goodness of fit. Adjusted R2 values were found to 0.999 or better with respect to a linear fit. All of the transition temperatures from the profiles in figure 21 and their indicators of sample purity were calculated in exactly the same way as before and can be seen in figure 22 Sample TC Error PI 2 88.1 0.3 0.079 88.1 0.4 0.067 89.1 0.6 0.090 3 88.3 0.1 0.070 87 1 0.109 4 87.9 0.4 0.073 88.0 0.2 0.085 88.1 0.4 0.075 85.97 0.04 0.043 It can be seen in figure 21 that of the profiles from sample 2, two follow an almost identical path while in the normal state the third and final profile remains approximately 0.014ÃŽÂ ©mm greater than the previous two at all times. This difference is also reflected in figure 22, where the transition temperature of the final profile can be seen to be 1K greater than the other two. This could be attributed to flaking contacts on the four point probe. Due to thermal shock over time in the form of the cryostat heating and cooling, the silver paint which held the four point probe contacts in place on the sample would sometimes flake slightly, thus increasing the perceived resistance and hence the resistivity of the sample. This theory is further confirmed by what look like rogue data points on the normal state side of the transition giving the graph a set of what look like spikes away from a linear fit. The first profile from sample 3 cut out early due to a technical fault. It can also be seen that the differences between the first and second profiles are similar to those in sample 2. This is also likely to have been caused by loose connections or flaking lending a greater resistance to the second profile. This is confirmed again by a spiking character towards the higher temperature end of the normal state trend. The profiles of sample 4 group well both in the linear, normal state region and, as shown in figure 22, in their calculated value of the transition temperature. There is, however, a large discrepancy between the resistivity of sample 4 and that of samples 2 and 3; almost double at all points in the normal region. One possible explanation for this could be the known difference in the values of resistivity along the a or b and the c axis of the unit cell of YBCO. This leads to the idea that one sample may have unit cells aligned in a different orientation to the other two when current is passed through the sample. Literature values of this ratio range from 30 to 150[xvi] rendering this hypothesis highly unlikely. A large source of error was that of the separations of the contacts of the four point probe through to the calculation of the resistivity. This enormous error on the value of r (in equation 8) gives each value of the resistivity an error of 20% of its own value (these have not been included in figure 21 as due to the large number of data points all of the errors from each profile blend into one another making it extremely difficult to determine which set of errors belong to which data set). If this error was not included then the error on the resistivity, just as that on the resistance, would be negligibly small. 20% seems far too large and could be a result of various factors. The first of these is the large spread and small number of measurements taken of the separations which itself results from two factors. The first being that the separations were measured by eye using vernier callipers; had a travelling microscope been used then much more accurate measurements could have been t aken. The second is that as the contact wires themselves were not straight, a linear distance between them was difficult to establish (photo in figure 23). It could also have been that the separation of the wires was measured from the wrong points on the sample. This is explained using figure 23. Figure 23: A photo of a sample and four point probe with a simplified cross section of it to demonstrate current movement through the sample both in the superconducting state (green) and the normal state (red). The separations of the contacts of the four point probe were measured from the centres of the wires. It can be seen in figure 23 that this is a reasonable approximation while the sample is in the superconducting state; the current will work to minimise the distance it travels through the conductive silver paint due to its higher conductivity. However, in the normal state this is reversed and the current will work to minimise the distance travelled through the sample. Therefore it may have been a better idea to measure the contact separations from the edge of the silver paint. This effect could be negated if thin film materials were used. However, these have different physical properties to bulk materials and so would change the purpose of the investigation altogether. As can be seen in figure 22, all of the samples from batch two had similar levels of purity (at least all of the same order of magnitude). The transition temperatures for batch two were averaged and found to be 87.8( ±0.4)K. This agreed with the transition temperature calculated for batch one which is logical as the XRD data indicates that they are extremely similar compounds. Although this might be the case it would make no sense to average the transition temperatures of both batches even by weight due to the current inability to ensure that both batches contain the same oxygen content (the overriding factor determining transition temperature). In an attempt to determine the oxygen content of the two batches of YBCO a phase diagram such as the one shown in figure 24 was used. In this way the oxygen contents of batches one and two were determined to be 6.82( ±0.01) and 6.83( ±0.01) respectively. This again supports the XRD data plotted in figure 14 in confirming the similarity in compound and structure. When trying to compare the two transition temperatures calculated (86.8( ±0.8)K and 87.8( ±0.4)K) to literature data two major problems are encountered. The first is that this report has determined the oxygen content of the samples using their calculated transition temperature. Therefore it seems somewhat counterintuitive to find a reference transition temperature based upon an oxygen content which has been determined from the transition temperature itself. It is, however, widely established that the upper bound of the superconducting transition temperature of YBCO is 95K which the data determined here fits. IV.I Specific Heat Capacity Methods In order to obtain a value of the superconducting transition temperature independent of the electrical properties of the samples, two similar methods of measuring how its specific heat capacity varied as a function of temperature were employed. For both methods a sample of YBCO was suspended at the base of a cryostat probe using thermally and conductively insulating dental floss. Two opposing sides of the sample were then coated in a thermally conductive heat sink paste. On one of these sides a strain gauge was placed and on the other a platinum thermometer. These were secured using a layer of thermally insulating varnish. Both gauge and thermometer were attached to an ammeter, voltmeter (Keithley 2000 DMMs) and current source using four point resistance set ups as can be seen below in figure 25. Figure 25: Cross sectional view of a sample prepared for specific heat capacity measurements. The sample is shown in dark grey, the heat sink paste in light grey, varnish in brown, platinum thermometer in blue and the strain gauge in red and yellow. The first method involved placing this probe in an airtight sample space within a vat of liquid nitrogen. The space was filled with helium until the sample had reached the same temperature as the liquid nitrogen and then vacuumed to a pressure of 2.2010-6 Torr . A constant current was then applied to the strain gauge causing it to heat. All of the variables were recorded using a LabView program in appendix 2. Two assumptions were made during this experiment. The first was that all of the electrical power going into the strain gauge was transferred into thermal energy, and the second was that all of this thermal energy was then conducted through the sample and detected by the platinum thermometer (equation 9 where Q is the energy supplied, tf is the final time, m is the mass of the sample, ΆT is the change in temperature and the rest of the variables are as before in this report). Q=0tfIVdt=mCVΆT (9)[xvii] The second method took the sample set up as shown in figure 25 and placed it in a cryostat in which the temperature could be controlled. Random bursts of power were applied to the strain gauge (as opposed to a continuous flow) at a range of different temperatures and the corresponding rise in temperature was recorded with the same program as was used for the first method. The LabView program used to record data for this experiment for this experiment can also be found in appendix 2. IV.II Specific Heat Capacity Results, Analysis and Interpretation The results of the first of the two experiments to measure the heat capacity of the sample from the first batch can be seen below in figure 26. An initial static temperature of approximately 74K was recorded which at first appeared to be an equipment failure as liquid nitrogen boils at approximately 77K (at atmospheric pressure). This could have been explained if the liquid nitrogen had been kept under pressure within the vat. However, considering that the sample space was able to be inserted into the top of the vat freely this was not the case; the liquid nitrogen must have been at atmospheric pressure. The platinum thermometer was even retested within a standard cryostat and agreed with equation 8. Due to only the cumulative energy and temperature being recorded a small but not unreasonable assumption had to be made when calculating the specific heat capacity. It was assumed that at any given point the total energy supplied up until that point would result in the temperature measured whether the sample had been cooled between measurements or heated continuously. The initial drop in heat capacity can be attributed to the time taken for the initial thermal energy supplied by the strain gauge to travel through the bulk of the sample to the platinum thermometer. This trend can be seen to continue until approximately 76K. At a temperature of just over 86K the specific heat capacity of the sample seemed to gain an almost exponential character. It has been suggested that this was due to ineffective thermal insulation of the sample in the sample space, and instead of the thermal energy being transferred through the sample it was transferred to the liquid nitrogen through convection/radiation. Convection to the sample space wall seems unlikely considering the very low pressure within the sample space and radiation would not be an efficient enough transfer process to account for this large and constant drain of thermal energy from the experimental system. Enlarging the area of the graph around the previously found transition temperature a very small discontinuity can clearly be seen just before the large amount of noise in the upper, normal state, heating regions. This can be seen in figure 27. When compared to figure 5 in section I it can be seen that this discontinuity, although not as sharp, matches the shape expected in theory; a sharp jump followed by a change in the character of the heat capacity. Even with errors set by the trend described by equation 7 ( ±0.04K), this discontinuity still distorts the general trend to an extent that could not be explained by a singular anomaly. The peak of this sharp discontinuity in heat capacity was found to occur at a temperature of 86.1( ±0.1)K, which agrees with the transition temperature for the first batch found in the resistivity experiment of 86.8( ±0.8)K, albeit at the extremes of the errors. Due to time constraints only two further experiments were run in an attempt to try and replicate these initial results but both failed to do so. The first was repeated with a current within error of that used in the first experiment and yielded the results seen in figure 28. Although it can be seen that this experiment, like the first, gives rise to an almost linear rise in temperature at around 86K it peaks just before whereas the first experiment peaked just after 86K. Also, a discontinuity can be seen within this curve, similar to the first experiment. The main differences start to occur when the discontinuity is seen in more detail. Instead of a continuing change in specific heat capacity such as that seen in figure 27, this discontinuity has a shape that is more reminiscent of a few rogue data points, possibly due to a loose wire in the platinum thermometer electronics. This can be seen more clearly in figure 29 below. The second of these two repeat experiments can be seen below in figure 30. Conducted with a slightly higher current, this trend continues past 86K and starts to rise just after 88K. There is no discontinuity in this trend, for several possible reasons. The first is that its specific heat capacity never reaches 17.30( ±0.03)Jg-1K-1 (the value of the specific heat capacity at the discontinuity found in figure 27). This is primarily a consequence of the experiment cutting out early due to a technical fault. The second is possibly that the discontinuity found in figure 27 is an anomaly and should not normally occur. The minimum points on each of figures 24, 26 and 28 were determined and found to be 2.31( ±0.03)Jg-1K-1, 2.13( ±0.03)Jg-1K-1 and 2.82( ±0.03)Jg-1K-1 respectively. Although not agreeing within error, these values do lie in the same order of magnitude and so could be different due to a slight change in environmental conditions (e.g. concentration of helium/air inside the sample space). The only reference data found on this topic combined the normal and superconducting heat capacities using equation 4. This assumes that the phonon contribution to the normal state heat capacity is equal to zero, which is clearly not the case in the high temperature superconductors and so cannot be compared here. Only one set of data was able to be taken for the second heat capacity experiment and the results of this can be seen below in figure 31. Although the initial heating spike seen in each of the previous heat capacity experiments results can be seen it lacks any other similar characteristics. The trend moves straight past the region in which the transition temperature was thought to lie with no visible effect on the results. This could be due to several reasons. The first could be that not enough data points have been collected and any discontinuity was simply missed. The second and much more likely reason could be that in an attempt to hold the cryostat at a constant higher temperature all of the liquid nitrogen boiled off and thermal energy from the samples surrounding caused it to heat instead of the energy supplied from the strain gauge. This was a problem with the design of the experiment It is for the very reason stated above that the minimum specific heat capacity achieved in the second heat capacity experiment could not be measured. External heating simply made the results obtained from this method far too unreliable to use in any reliable data analysis. V Conclusions The calibration of the furnace gave results instrumental in the successful fabrication of YBCO and the data obtained from the calibration of the Pt100 allowed the temperature of the sample space to be measured to a much greater accuracy during experiments. The relationship of the Pt100 platinum thermometers resistance and its temperature was also shown to differ from reference data very little. It can be concluded that YBCO was successfully fabricated within the laboratory. This was confirmed by X-ray diffraction data. If the fabrication were to be redone it would be useful to identify a way in which the actual amount of oxygen absorbed into the compound could be measured. It is by this method that the actual compound fabricated could be identified and compared to reference data as opposed to having to use experimentally determined transition temperatures to work backwards using phase diagrams. It would also be beneficial to create several more samples of varying oxygen content in order to gather a wider range of profiles and transition temperatures. It would also be extremely beneficial to fabricate the compound in a much cleaner environment e.g. a clean room instead of a fume cupboard. This would not only give a much sharper transition due to a greater level of purity but would also remove much of the background noise in the XRD data making it much easier to compare to re ference data. It can also be concluded that as a result of the successful resistivity profiling of the samples, the transition temperatures of each of the batches were found to be 86.8( ±0.8)K and 87.8( ±0.4)K. These results were then used to determine the oxygen contents of the fabricated samples and found to be 6.82( ±0.01) and 6.83( ±0.01). The profiles also all showed excellent linearity in the normal states regions as predicted by theory. If this experiment was to be repeated a much more accurate way of measuring the four point probe contact separation would be determined to reduce the overly large error propagated through into the values of the resistivity. The experiments concerning the specific heat capacity of the compound gave mixed results in terms of usable data. The primary data gathered in the first experiment seemed to confirm the transition temperature found in the resistivity experiment with a discontinuity at 86.1( ±0.1)K but these results could then not be reproduced calling into question the accuracy of the experiment. However, measurements of the specific heat capacities at minimum points seemed to agree within magnitude although not within the small errors set. The second experiment failed completely to produce any sort of usable data due to poor experimental design. It was also found that the specific heat capacity of the normal state should have been recorded in order to produce any results comparable to reference literature. With all of this taken into consideration it can still be seen that the main difficulty with these experiments was that the oxygen content of the samples was unknown. This made it almost impossible to compare the transition temperatures found to any sort of reference data. Acknowledgements Prof. Damian Hampshire Mr. Mark Raine Mr. Gary Oswald Miss. L Falk Mrs. S Jowitt 19 January 2010Page 14 of 14Josephine Butler College References [i] Theory of Superconductivity, J.R.Schrieffer, Perseus Books (124), page 1 [ii] Introduction to Solid State Physics 8th Edition, C. Kittel, John Wiley Sons, Inc (2005), page 259 [iii] https://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1913 [iv] Possible high TC superconductivity in the Ba-La-Cu-O system, J.G. Bednorz and K.A. MÃÆ' ¼ller (1986) [v] https://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1987 [vi] Superconductivity, C. P. Poole, Jr., H. A. Farach R. J. Creswick, Academic Press (1995), page 40 [vii] Superconductivity, E.A. Lynton, Methuen Co Ltd (1962), page 75 [viii] Superconductivity: Volume I, R.D. Parks, Marcel Dekker Inc (1969), page 76 [ix] Superconductivity: Volume I, R.D. Parks, Marcel Dekker Inc (1969), page 6 [x] Superconductivity, C. P. Poole, Jr., H. A. Farach R. J. Creswick, Academic Press (1995), page 96 [xi] Superconductivity, C. P. Poole, Jr., H. A. Farach R. J. Creswick, Academic Press (1995), page 36 [xii] High-Temperature Superconductivity in Curpates, A. Mourachkine, Kluwer Academic Publishers (2002), page 40 [xiii] R. Swarup, A. K. Gupta and M. C. Bansal (1995). Effect of sample density on magnetic penetration depth in YBaCuO ceramic superconductors. Journal of Superconductivity 8 (3): 361-364 [xiv] https://docs-europe.electrocomponents.com/webdocs/0c41/0900766b80c41b6b.pdf [xv] Semiconductor material and Device Characterization, Schroder D.K., John Wiley Sons Inc (1990), page 4 [xvi] Superconductivity, C. P. Poole, Jr., H. A. Farach R. J. Creswick, Academic Press (1995), page 28-29 [xvii] Physics for Scientists and Engineers, Sixth Edition, Tipler P.A. G. Mosca, W.H. Freeman and Company (2008), page 687 and 875

The Bible And The Odyssey - 1662 Words

Madalyn Schenk Schenk 1 October 7, 2014 CH 201 Professor Stgevens Essay 1 In the Hebrew Bible and The Odyssey there are heroic figures that play an important role through out each of the books. These heroic figures from the Bible and The Odyssey have many similarities and differences that reflect the different cultures they are from. These heroes are called upon by greater beings, such as gods, to complete difficult journeys and or tasks that the god has made them destined to complete. Each of these legendary heroes demonstrates a particular culture’s needs. Through these journeys and or tasks they are forced to overcome challenging obstacles and make sacrifices. A hero is something that society has formed an idea about the characteristic it should posses from history. Through the stories told from the past a hero is developed through their qualities and characteristics they value. When one views a hero from a different culture they can form an opinion on what matters to that culture. One will notice that through all these different heroes that they all share common features. In ancient Hebrew culture Moses represents a hero and for ancient Greek culture Odysseus represents heroic figures. Moses from, the Bible, and Odysseus from, The Odyssey, are examples of heroes that were called upon by the gods. They both did not choose to or were born to become heroes. Moses and Odysseus were not perfect human beings before becoming heroes. 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Deception Point Page 40 Free Essays

â€Å"This photo reveals,† Tench said, â€Å"that your candidate is holding secret meetings with an organization that represents private space enterprises.† Tench motioned to several other documents on the table. â€Å"We also have internal SFF memos calling for huge sums of money to be collected from SFF member companies-in amounts commensurate with their net worth-and transferred to accounts controlled by Senator Sexton. We will write a custom essay sample on Deception Point Page 40 or any similar topic only for you Order Now In effect, these private space agencies are anteing up to put Sexton in office. I can only assume he has agreed to pass the commercialization bill and privatize NASA if elected.† Gabrielle looked at the pile of papers, unconvinced. â€Å"Do you expect me to believe that the White House has evidence that its opponent is engaged in profoundly illegal campaign finance-and yet, for some reason, you are keeping it secret?† â€Å"What would you believe?† Gabrielle glared. â€Å"Frankly, considering your skills for manipulation, a more logical solution seems that you are plying me somehow with phony documents and photos produced by some enterprising White House staffer and his desktop publishing computer.† â€Å"Possible, I admit. But not true.† â€Å"No? Then how did you get all these internal documents from corporations? The resources required to steal all of this evidence from so many companies certainly exceeds the grasp of the White House.† â€Å"You’re right. This information arrived here as an unsolicited gift.† Gabrielle was now lost. â€Å"Oh yes,† Tench said, â€Å"we get a lot of it. The President has many powerful political allies who would like to see him stay in office. Remember, your candidate is suggesting cuts all over the place-a lot of them right here in Washington. Senator Sexton certainly has no qualms about citing the FBI’s bloated budget as an example of government overspending. He’s taken some potshots at the IRS, too. Maybe someone at the bureau or at the service got a little annoyed.† Gabrielle got the implication. People at the FBI and IRS would have ways of getting this kind of information. They might then send it to the White House as an unsolicited favor to help the President’s election. But what Gabrielle could not make herself believe was that Senator Sexton would ever be engaged in illegal campaign funding. â€Å"If this data is accurate,† Gabrielle challenged, â€Å"which I strongly doubt it is, why haven’t you gone public?† â€Å"Why do you think?† â€Å"Because it was gathered illegally.† â€Å"How we got it makes no difference.† â€Å"Of course it makes a difference. It’s inadmissible in a hearing.† â€Å"What hearing? We’d simply leak this to a newspaper, and they’d run it as a ‘credible-source’ story with photos and documentation. Sexton would be guilty until proven innocent. His vocal anti-NASA stance would be virtual proof that he is taking bribes.† Gabrielle knew it was true. â€Å"Fine,† she challenged, â€Å"then why haven’t you leaked the information?† â€Å"Because it’s a negative. The President promised not to go negative in the campaign and he wants to stick to that promise as long as he can.† Yeah, right! â€Å"You’re telling me the President is so upstanding that he refuses to go public with this because people might consider it a negative?† â€Å"It’s a negative for the country. It implicates dozens of private companies, many of which are made up of honest people. It besmirches the office of the U.S. Senate and is bad for the country’s morale. Dishonest politicians hurt all politicians. Americans need to trust their leaders. This would be an ugly investigation and would most likely send a U.S. senator and numerous prominent aerospace executives to jail.† Although Tench’s logic did make sense, Gabrielle still doubted the allegations. â€Å"What does any of this have to do with me?† â€Å"Simply put, Ms. Ashe, if we release these documents, your candidate will be indicted for illegal campaign financing, lose his Senate seat, and most likely do prison time.† Tench paused. â€Å"Unless†¦ â€Å" Gabrielle saw a snakelike glint in the senior adviser’s eyes. â€Å"Unless what?† Tench took a long drag on her cigarette. â€Å"Unless you decide to help us avoid all that.† A murky silence settled over the room. Tench coughed roughly. â€Å"Gabrielle, listen, I decided to share this unfortunate information with you for three reasons. First, to show you Zach Herney is a decent man who considers the government’s well-being before his personal gain. Second, to inform you that your candidate is not as trustworthy as you might think. And third, to persuade you to accept the offer I am about to make.† â€Å"That offer being?† â€Å"I’d like to offer you a chance to do the right thing. The patriotic thing. Whether you know it or not, you’re in a unique position to spare Washington all kinds of unpleasant scandal. If you can do what I am about to ask, perhaps you could even earn yourself a place on the President’s team.† A place on the President’s team? Gabrielle couldn’t believe what she was hearing. â€Å"Ms. Tench, whatever you have in mind, I do not appreciate being black-mailed, coerced, or talked down to. I work for the senator’s campaign because I believe in his politics. And if this is any indication of the way Zach Herney exerts political influence, I have no interest in being associated with him! If you’ve got something on Senator Sexton, then I suggest you leak it to the press. Frankly, I think this whole thing’s a sham.† Tench gave a dreary sigh. â€Å"Gabrielle, your candidate’s illegal funding is a fact. I’m sorry. I know you trust him.† She lowered her voice. â€Å"Look, here’s the point. The President and I will go public with the funding issue if we must, but it will get ugly on a grand scale. This scandal involves several major U.S. corporations breaking the law. A lot of innocent people will pay the price.† She took a long drag and exhaled. â€Å"What the President and I are hoping for here†¦ is some other way to discredit the senator’s ethics. A way that is more contained†¦ one in which no innocent parties get hurt.† Tench set down her cigarette and folded her hands. â€Å"Simply put, we would like you to publicly admit that you had an affair with the senator.† Gabrielle’s entire body went rigid. Tench sounded utterly certain of herself. Impossible, Gabrielle knew. There was no proof. The sex had happened only once, behind locked doors in Sexton’s senatorial office. Tench has nothing. She’s fishing. Gabrielle fought to retain her steady tone. â€Å"You assume a lot, Ms. Tench.† â€Å"Which? That you had an affair? Or that you would abandon your candidate?† â€Å"Both.† Tench gave a curt smile and stood up. â€Å"Well, let’s put one of those facts to rest right now, shall we?† She walked to her wall safe again and returned with a red manila folder. It was stamped with the White House seal. She unhooked the clasp, tipped the envelope over, and dumped the contents out on the desk in front of Gabrielle. As dozens of color photographs spilled out onto the desk, Gabrielle saw her entire career come crashing down before her. 46 Outside the habisphere, the katabatic wind roaring down off the glacier was nothing like the ocean winds Tolland was accustomed to. On the ocean, wind was a function of tides and pressure fronts and came in gusting ebbs and flows. The katabatic, however, was a slave to simple physics-heavy cold air rushing down a glacial incline like a tidal wave. It was the most resolute gale force Tolland had ever experienced. Had it been coming at twenty knots, the katabatic would have been a sailor’s dream, but at its current eighty knots it could quickly become a nightmare even for those on solid ground. Tolland found that if he paused and leaned backward, the stalwart squall could easily prop him up. How to cite Deception Point Page 40, Essay examples

Civil aircraft manufacturing industry Essay Example For Students

Civil aircraft manufacturing industry Essay Outline1 1. Introduction2 2. Cardinal Divers for alteration3 2.1 Recession4 2.2 Fuel monetary value increased5 2.3 Political influence6 2.4 Government assistance7 2.5 Technology Innovation8 3. The Structure of the civil aircraft fabrication industry9 3.1 Porter s five forces analysis10 3.2 Industry life rhythm11 4. Mentions 1. Introduction Civil aircraft fabrication industry is one of the largest industries in the universe which Boeing and Airbus are the two big participants who dominated the industry. The chief former rivals have exited civil aircraft fabricating market, for case, Boeing merged with McDonnell Douglas Corp in August 1997 ( Boeing, 2010a ) , and left Airbus and Boeing operating in a close duopoly planetary market. Boeing now headquartered in Chicago and employs more than 158,000 people in 70 states with $ 60.9 billion gross in 2008 which founded in 1916 ( Boeing, 2010b ) . Airbus, by contrast, created in 1970 with 52,000 employees comes from more than 80 nationalities ( Airbus, 2010 ) and gained aaˆsAÂ ¬43.3 billion grosss ( EADS, 2008 ) . Apparently, it is critical of import for new participant to last and thrive by analyzing the macro and sector environment. This study tries to seek the critical success factors and measure whether this is an attractive sector to vie in by research secondary infor mation. This study will get down with evaluate key drivers for alteration in order to cognize the external environment issues. Second, Porter s five force analysis and industry life rhythm will set about to analysis the construction of this industry. Finally, the study is traveling to reason critical success factors from the findings draw from last two stairss. 2. Cardinal Divers for alteration Macro-environmental influences sometimes are important of import for an administration to last and thrive. Therefore, there are five external key diver listed below and pull from PESTEL analysis about civil aircraft fabrication industry. 2.1 Recession Global economic recession had impact on civil aircraft fabrication in several facets. On one manus, the direct influence is the two companies received fewer orders than earlier. For case, the figure of orders Boeing received decreased significantly in 2009 ( 142 ) compared to 2008 ( 662 ) and 2007 ( 1,417 ) ( Talton, 2010 ) . On the other manus, the recession had led to downsizing in both Boeing and Airbus. For illustration, Boeing announced that it would cut 4,500 occupations ( Weber, 2009 ) . So the new entrants can derive entree to the expertness in this industry easy. It means the new maestro of those staff will cognize non merely the market but besides some secret of the two chief rivals. 2.2 Fuel monetary value increased Fuel monetary value is besides an influence for aircraft fabrication industry. Harmonizing to The Times ( 2008 ) , more than $ 100 billion of aircraft orders have cancelled or postponed resulted from high monetary value of fuel. It indicates that if one company can bring forth the more environment-friendly aircraft will pull possible purchasers who want to take advantage of low fuel cost. 2.3 Political influence Political influences sometimes are critical of import for fabricating industry. For illustration, IATA had introduced emanation policy options in order to better fuel efficiency and emanations for protecting environment ( IATA, 2010 ) . Otherwise, the companies need to pay immense fund. Therefore, some companies need to redesign the constituent such as engine and exhaust system. Furthermore, some authoritiess intervene international trade is another issue can non disregard, viz. , late Boeing suffered menace from Chinese authorities after United States weaponries sold to Taiwan ( Lubin, 2010 ) . 2.4 Government assistance Both of Boeing and Airbus on a regular basis accuses the other of having unjust province assistance from their several authoritiess, viz. , the WTO Boeing-Airbus difference ( European Commission, 2007 ) . The ground why is aircraft fabricating company demand important saddle horses of money to put up and put in research and development. For illustration, Gresing and Johnsson ( 2007 ) cited pure development cost of Boeing 787 was $ 10 billion. .uf0a49faf476fdc067c8ee2f3089e5d61 , .uf0a49faf476fdc067c8ee2f3089e5d61 .postImageUrl , .uf0a49faf476fdc067c8ee2f3089e5d61 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .uf0a49faf476fdc067c8ee2f3089e5d61 , .uf0a49faf476fdc067c8ee2f3089e5d61:hover , .uf0a49faf476fdc067c8ee2f3089e5d61:visited , .uf0a49faf476fdc067c8ee2f3089e5d61:active { border:0!important; } .uf0a49faf476fdc067c8ee2f3089e5d61 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .uf0a49faf476fdc067c8ee2f3089e5d61 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .uf0a49faf476fdc067c8ee2f3089e5d61:active , .uf0a49faf476fdc067c8ee2f3089e5d61:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .uf0a49faf476fdc067c8ee2f3089e5d61 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .uf0a49faf476fdc067c8ee2f3089e5d61 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .uf0a49faf476fdc067c8ee2f3089e5d61 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .uf0a49faf476fdc067c8ee2f3089e5d61 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .uf0a49faf476fdc067c8ee2f3089e5d61:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .uf0a49faf476fdc067c8ee2f3089e5d61 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .uf0a49faf476fdc067c8ee2f3089e5d61 .uf0a49faf476fdc067c8ee2f3089e5d61-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .uf0a49faf476fdc067c8ee2f3089e5d61:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Nile River Essay2.5 Technology Innovation Advanced engineerings are one of the cardinal factors for this industry. It helps the company non merely maintain the distinction of merchandise but besides save internal resources. Boeing 787 dreamliner is a life cogent evidence to turn out this, viz. , 50 per centum of the primary construction of Boeing 787 is made of composite stuffs to accomplish higher strength-to-weight ratio ( Hawk, 2005 ) . In add-on, Boeing announced General Electric and Rolls-Royce have developed new engines which will better the fuel efficiency about 20 % compared to Boeing 767 ( Boeing, 2010c ) . The new aircraft will pull clients who want to take advantage of lower care cost. 3. The Structure of the civil aircraft fabrication industry Porter s five force analysis and industry life rhythm will set about below in order to measure whether civil aircraft fabrication industry is an attractive sector to vie in. 3.1 Porter s five forces analysis Appendix 7.1 illustrates the Porter s five forces analysis and it will depict below. 3.1.1 Menaces of entrants 3.1.2 Supplier power 3.1.3 Buyer power 3.1.4 Menaces of replacement 3.1.5 Competitive competition 3.2 Industry life rhythm Appendix 7.2 shows the industry life rhythm for civil aircraft industry. This study considers the phase of civil aircraft industry life rhythm is in the terminal of shock-out and in the beginning of the adulthood because of this industry still maintains some characteristics in shake-out phase and derive new characteristics in the 4th phase. Both shake-out and adulthood phase have some similar features, like the low and slow growing and high entry barrier. For illustration, boeing and Airbus suffered from the crisp deceasing figure of order at Duhai show in 2009 ( EASA, 2009 ) . On the other facet, Airbus and Boeing received authorities assistance from Europe and United States severally. It besides indicates that it is hard to last in this industry without authorities support. In other words, at least the cost of threshold resource and competency are rather high. However, the state of affairs of this industry is besides carry throughing the some sole features of the two phases, viz. , in shake-out phase smaller participant in this industry were forced issue or acquired with the Boeing and Airbus resulted in left a close duopoly market for the two giants. Boeing merged McDonnell Douglas Corp is one illustration ( Boeing, 2010a ) . Meanwhile, the ferocious competition with challengers will go on due to the strong purchaser power resulted from more participants compete in this industry such as China, Brazil ( Goodrich, 2009 ) . 4. Mentions Airbus ( 2010 ) Employees from all corners of the universe Retrieved from hypertext transfer protocol: //www.airbus.com/en/corporate/ethics/diversity / Boeing ( 2010a ) The Boeing Logbook: 1997-2001 Retrieved from: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.boeing.com/history/chronology/chron16.html Boeing ( 2010b ) Boeing in Brief Retrieved from: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.boeing.com/companyoffices/aboutus/brief.html Boeing ( 2010c ) Boeing 787 Dreamliner Will Provide New Solutions for Airlines, Passengers Retrieved from: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.boeing.com/commercial/787family/background.html EADS ( 2008 ) Financial Statements 2008 pp.9 Retrieved from: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.reports.eads.com/2008/en/s/downloads/files/financial_statements_eads_ar08.pdf EASA ( 2009 ) European Aviation Safety Agency News Summary 14/11/2009 20/11/2009 pp.1 Retrieved from: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.ucl.cz/download/pdf/News_Summary_23_11_09.pdf European Commission ( 2007 ) The WTO Boeing-Airbus difference ( updated 15 June 2007 ) pp.1 Retrieved from: hypertext transfer protocol: //trade.ec.europa.eu/doclib/docs/2007/june/tradoc_134957.pdf Goodrich ( 2009 ) Goodrich and China s XAIC Agree to From Joint Venture Companies Retrieved from: hypertext transfer protocol: //ir.goodrich.com/phoenix.zhtml? c=60759 A ; p=irol-newsArticle A ; ID=1319837 A ; highlight= Greising, D A ; Johnsson Julie ( 2007 ) Behind Boeing s 787 holds pp.2 Retrieved from: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.buffalo.edu/news/pdf/December07/ChicagoTribPritchardBoeing.pdf Hawk, J ( 2005 ) The Boeing 787 Dreamliner: More Than an Airplane pp.10-11 Retrieved from: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.aiaa.org/events/aners/Presentations/ANERS-Hawk.pdf IATA ( 2010 ) Emission Policy Options Retrieved from: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.iata.org/whatwedo/environment/emissions_policy.htm Lubin, G ( 2010 ) China Threatens Unprecedented Sanctions Against Boeing After US Arms Gross saless to Taiwan Retrieved from: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.businessinsider.com/china-threatens-unprecedented-sanctions-against-boeing-2010-2 .ua5d6e0789a2f5cfe9f0859e8995b1965 , .ua5d6e0789a2f5cfe9f0859e8995b1965 .postImageUrl , .ua5d6e0789a2f5cfe9f0859e8995b1965 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .ua5d6e0789a2f5cfe9f0859e8995b1965 , .ua5d6e0789a2f5cfe9f0859e8995b1965:hover , .ua5d6e0789a2f5cfe9f0859e8995b1965:visited , .ua5d6e0789a2f5cfe9f0859e8995b1965:active { border:0!important; } .ua5d6e0789a2f5cfe9f0859e8995b1965 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .ua5d6e0789a2f5cfe9f0859e8995b1965 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .ua5d6e0789a2f5cfe9f0859e8995b1965:active , .ua5d6e0789a2f5cfe9f0859e8995b1965:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .ua5d6e0789a2f5cfe9f0859e8995b1965 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .ua5d6e0789a2f5cfe9f0859e8995b1965 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .ua5d6e0789a2f5cfe9f0859e8995b1965 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .ua5d6e0789a2f5cfe9f0859e8995b1965 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .ua5d6e0789a2f5cfe9f0859e8995b1965:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .ua5d6e0789a2f5cfe9f0859e8995b1965 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .ua5d6e0789a2f5cfe9f0859e8995b1965 .ua5d6e0789a2f5cfe9f0859e8995b1965-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .ua5d6e0789a2f5cfe9f0859e8995b1965:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: English Lamott EssayTalton, J ( 2010 ) Boeing s bead in orders shows recession s effects still linger Retrieved from: hypertext transfer protocol: //seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/soundeconomywithjontalton/2010729937_boeings_drop_in_orders_shows_r.html The Times ( 2008 ) Menace to aircraft orders as fuel monetary values surge Retrieved from: hypertext transfer protocol: //business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/industry_sectors/engineering/article4327146.ece Weber, J ( 2009 ) Boeing Will Cut 4,500 Jobs Retrieved from: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.businessweek.com/bwdaily/dnflash/content/jan2009/db2009019_791015.htm

Managerial Statistics Essay Example

Managerial Statistics Essay 1) Suppose that an independent laboratory has tested trash bags and has found that no 30-gallon bags that are currently on the market have a mean breaking strength of 50 pounds or more. On the basis of these results, the producer of the new, improved trash bag feels sure that its 30-gallon bag will be the strongest such bag on the market if the new trash bags mean breaking strength can be shown to be at least 50 pounds. The mean of the sample of 40 trash bag breaking strengths in Table 1. 9 is x=50. 575. If we let u denote the mean of the breaking strengths of all trash bags of the new type and assume that o equals 1. 5: a. Calculate 95 percent and 99 percent confidence intervals for u. b. Using the 95 percent confidence interval, can we be 95 percent confident that u is at least 50 pounds? Explain c. Using the 99% confidence interval, can we be 99% confident that u is at least 50 pounds? explain d. Based on your answers to parts b and c, how convinced are you that the new 30-gallon trash bag is the strongest such bag on the market? (a) (i) 95% confidence interval for ? :n = 40x-bar = 50. 575s = 1. 65% = 95Standard Error, SE = ? /On = 0. 2609z- score = 1. 9600Width of the confidence interval = z * SE = 0. 113Lower Limit of the confidence interval = x-bar width = 50. 0637Upper Limit of the confidence interval = x-bar + width = 51. 0863The confidence interval is [50. 0637 pounds, 51. 0863 pounds](ii) 99% confidence interval for ? :n = 40x-bar = 50. 575s = 1. 65% = 99Standard Error, SE = ? /On = 0. 2609z- score = 2. 5758Width of the confidence interval = z * SE = 0. 6720Lower Limit of the confidence interval = x-bar width = 49. 9030Upper Limit of the confidence interval = x-bar + width = 51. 2470The confidence interval is [49. 9030 pounds, 51. 2470 pounds](b) Yes, we can be 95% confident that ? s at least 50 pounds, since the entire 95% confidence interval lies above 50 pounds (c) No, we can’t be 99% confident that ? is at least 50 pounds, since a part of the 99% confidence interval lies below 50 pounds (d) At 95% confidence level, we can say that the new 30-gallon trash bag is the strongest such bag on the market. But we cannot conclude the same at 99% confidence level. 2) Quality Progress, February 2005, reports on the results achieved by Bank of America in improving customer satisfaction and customer loyalty by listening to the voice of the customer. A key measure of customer satisfaction is the response on a scale from 1 to 10 to the question: Considering all the business you do with Bank of America, what is your overall satisfaction with Bank of America? Suppose that a random sample of 350 current customers results in 195 customers with a response of 9 or 10 representing customer delight. Find a 95% confidence interval for the true proportion of all current Bank of America customers who would respond with a 9 or 10. Are we 95% confident that this proportion exceeds . 8, the historical proportion of customer delight for Bank o f America? (a) 95% confidence interval for p:n = 350p = 0. 5571% = 95Standard Error, SE = O{p(1 p)/n} = 0. 0266z- score = 1. 9600Width of the confidence interval = z * SE = 0. 0520Lower Limit of the confidence interval = P width = 0. 5051Upper Limit of the confidence interval = P + width = 0. 6092The confidence interval is [0. 5051, 0. 6092](b) Yes, we can be 95% confident that p exceeds 0. 48, since the entire 95% confidence interval lies above 0. 48.

Housekeeping and Record Keeping Tasks for Teachers

Housekeeping and Record Keeping Tasks for Teachers The job of teaching can be divided into six teaching tasks. One of these tasks is dealing with housekeeping and recordkeeping. Each day, teachers must take care of the business of teaching before they begin their daily lesson plan. While required daily tasks might seem monotonous and at times unnecessary, they can be made manageable through the use of effective systems. The main housekeeping and recordkeeping tasks can be divided into the following categories: AttendanceCollecting Student WorkResource and Material ManagementGradesAdditional Teacher Specific Recordkeeping Tasks Attendance Tasks There are two main housekeeping chores related to attendance: taking daily attendance and dealing with students who are tardy. It is very important that you keep accurate attendance records because the situation might arise that the administration needs to use these to determine who was or was not in your class on a particular day. Following are some key tips to remember when taking attendance: Use attendance at the beginning of the year to learn students names.If you have students complete warm-ups at the beginning of each class period, this will give you the time to take attendance quickly and quietly without disrupting learning.Assigned seats can speed up attendance because you can quickly glance at the class to see if there are any empty seats. Tips for Taking Attendance Dealing With Tardies Tardies can cause a lot of disruption for teachers. It is important that you have a system ready and waiting for when a student is tardy to your class. Some effective methods that teachers use to deal with tardies include: Tardy CardsOn Time QuizzesDetention Learn more about these and other methods for dealing with tardy students with this article on Creating a Tardy Policy Assigning, Collecting, and Returning Student Work Student work can quickly balloon into a housekeeping disaster if you do not have an easy and systematic way to assign, collect, and return it. Assigning student work is much simpler if you use the same method every day. Methods might include a daily assignment sheet either posted or distributed to students or a reserved area of the board where you post each days assignment. Some teachers make collecting work completed in class a real time waster without realizing it. Dont walk around the room collecting work unless this serves a greater purpose such as during an exam or to stop a cheating situation. Instead, train the students to do the same thing each time they complete their work. For example, you might have them turn their paper over and when everyone is done pass their work to the front. Collecting homework should be done at the beginning of class to stop students from finishing their work after the bell rings. You might stand at the door and collect their work as they enter the class or have a specific homework box where they are to turn in their work by a certain time. Collecting Homework Tips and Ideas Late and Make Up Work One of the biggest thorns for many new and experienced teachers is dealing with late and make up work. As a general rule, teachers should accept late work according to a posted policy. Built into the policy is a system for penalizing late work to be fair to those who turn their work in on time. The problems arise around how to keep track of late work and ensure that grades are correctly adjusted. Each teacher has their own philosophy about late work though your school might have a standard policy. However, whatever system you use has to be easy for you to follow. Make up work is a different situation entirely. You have the challenge of creating authentic and interesting work on a daily basis which might not translate easily into make up work. Often quality work requires a great deal of teacher interaction. You might find that to make the work doable for the student, you have to create alternative assignments or provide detailed written instructions. Further, these students typically have extra time to turn in their work which can be hard in terms of managing your grading. How to Deal With Late and Make Up Work Resource and Material Management As a teacher, you may have books, computers, workbooks, manipulatives, lab materials, and more to manage. Books and materials have a tendency to walk away quite often. It is wise to create areas in your room where materials go and systems to make it easy for you to check whether all materials are accounted for each day. Further, if you assign books, you will probably want to do periodic book checks to make sure that students still have their books. This will save time and additional paperwork at the end of the school year. Reporting Grades One of the key recordkeeping tasks that teachers have is to accurately report grades. Typically, teachers have to report grades to their administration a couple of times a year: at progress report time, for student transfers, and for semester and final grades. A key to making this job manageable is to keep up with your grading as the year goes on. It can be tough sometimes to grade time-consuming assignments. Therefore, it is a good idea to use rubrics and if possible to space out assignments that require a lot of grading time. One problem with waiting until the end of a grading period to finish grading is that students might be surprised by their grade - they have not seen any previously graded work. Each school will have a different system for reporting grades. Make sure to double check each students grade before finally submitting them because mistakes are much easier to fix before they are finally submitted. Creating and Using RubricsTips to Cut Writing Assignment Grading Time Additional Recordkeeping Tasks From time to time, additional recordkeeping tasks might arise for you. For example, if you are taking your students on a field trip, then you will need to efficiently collect permission slips and money along with organizing buses and substitutes. When these situations arise, it is best to think through each of the steps and come up with a system for dealing with the paperwork. Tips for Field Trips